Systems Of Kinship

Answer : The social legislations especially related to women have brought tremendous change in the socio-economic structure and function of family in India. Some of the important legislations are; The Hindu Marriage Act- (1955), The Hindu succession Act- (1956), Widow Remarriage Act- (1929), Dowry prohibition Act-(1961), Special Marriage Act-(1954) etc. These legislations have chiefly enhanced the liberty and right of the women within the family. Thus, the domination of male member over the women, torture and exploitation of the women in the traditional family have greatly decreased. They are now not confined to the home and nurturing of the children merely, but they are doing job outside the family and have relatively become more independent. In the male dominated society, their status and positions are gradually recognised. But the women's issue are still relevant because women in the rural areas are illiterate and facing numerous problems. In the recent time, the reservation of the women in the Parliament and Panchayati Raj have further boosted up their position within the family. Thus, the traditional economic function of the family as a production unit is gradually transforming into a consumption unit. The socialization of the children is greatly taken over by the other agencies or institutions etc.

Answer : Patriarchy in general term means male domination and authority over females. Sylvia Walby identifies patriarchal structures which remit women and help to maintain male domination.

1. Paid Employment: Degree of inequality between men and women in terms of pay, conditions, access to well-rewarded occupations and opportunities create disadvantages to women both at work and at home.
2. Patriarchal Relations within the Household: Individual men directly exploit women by gaining benefits from women’s unpaid labour. Patriarchal structured labour marked offers no attentive to women from their exploitation. The oppression in family sometimes manifest in terms of violence and sexuality.
3. Culture: Culture of most societies consistently distinguishes between men and women and has different behavioural expectations from them. Though variable across class, ethnicity and age feminist is consistently differentiated from masculinity over last century and half.
4. Sexuality: This patriarchal structure has undergone important changes. From 19th century directed to one patriarchal agent for a lifetime to 20th century possibility of exchanging an inadequate husband for a new one. But the sexual liberty had not worked in women’s advantage and sexual double standards are still alive.
5. Violence: The fear of violence or its threat is used as power over women. Male violence includes rape, sexual assault, wife beating, workplace sexual harassment and child sexual abuse.
6. The State: State politics relating to gender has changed considerably. Creation of legal backing to exclusionary practices in employment, education, contraceptive, abortions, divorce, wages etc. But the impact is marginal and state continues to be patriarchal and racist.

The women movement in its initial years during pre-independence era was part of many social reform movements. Many enlightened male reformer took up issues like sati, widow remarriage, women education, age of marriage as part of this efforts to modernize society. It comprised mostly of male reformers’ vision of new women. In later years it took backstage and fight against colonial rulers seen as more impending. Though many organizations and individuals like Brahma Samaj of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Prarthana Samaj of Ranade and Bhandarkar, Arya Samaj, Vidaya Sagar, Phule fight for many women issues yet there impact was limited.

During freedom movement struggle for women’s right and equality was seen as an integral part of the struggle for national independence. Many women who fight for country’s freedom were also active on issues of women’s rights. With the spread of education among middle class women by last part of 19th century several women became active in social and political life. Gandhiji’s cell to women and large scale participation of women in freedom movement brought about changes in the perception of nationalist leaders. The single factor which contributed to transformation of women’s role and status in India was their massive participation in national movement.

During early 20th century several women organizations were formed. Women’s India Association (WIA) was formed in 1917 by Margaret Cousin, National Council of Indian Women in 1926 and AIWC in 1927. Jyoti Singh in Gujarat played important role.

First time in 1917 demand for women’s right to vote was raised. It became fruitful with Madras becoming the First province to allow women to vote and Dr. Muthulaxmi Reddy became first women legislative councillor in 1927. Thus grand change in perspective of women’s issues from social, educational to political perspective occurred with women’s participation in freedom movement.

After independence many constitutional and social provisions and legislations gave impetus to women’s movement and fight against patriarchy. It provided equal rights for women, special provisions, remove legal disabilities, Hindu Family law reforms etc. At the same time women organizations and movements lost vigour and confined to charity and welfare activities.

Again the movement and resurgence in 1970 s brought to fore many issues and actions. Growth of protest politics and breaking limited perspective, legislation and education was main focus. The new women and organization took up hitherto untouched issues which were directly linked to patriarchy. Maternity benefits, provision of children at workplace, wage discriminates, discrimination at work. SEWA (Gujarat), Sramik Mahila Sangathana (Maharashtra) developed new approaches concerning rural and unorganized sector women. They started mobilizing women on specific issues concerning women life like dowry, rape, violence, domestic violence etc. Though women movement suffers from various setbacks, it has done considerable progress in bringing about change in attitude of people and women themselves. It has changed lives of many women. Many issues like reservation for women in legislations are pending and the road ahead for women movement is more challenging at the times of globalization and free trade.

Answer : The Preamble to the Constitution of India speaks of securing to all citizens of India equality of status and of opportunity as well as justice-social, economic and political. One of the Directives of State Policy explains that the state would not make discrimination on the ground of sex, religion or caste and that it should direct its policy towards securing equal pay for equal work for men and women. A number of other legislations have been enacted to raise the position of women. The recent Panchayat Raj Bill (the 64th Amendment) and the Nagarpalika Bill (the 65th Amendment) passed by the Lok Sabha and defeated in the Rajya Sabha, provided for 30% reservation for women in these bodies.

Property Rights: The Hindus Succession Act, 1956, has relaxed the property laws for women. Hindu women both according to the Daya bhaga system of succession Based on the right to offer pinda) and the Mitakshara (based on propinquity of blood) were debarred from holding property in their own rights. There were other systems also, likes the Marumakattayam of the Nairs, and the Namboodiri system which was based on the system of primogeniture. However, the majority followed the Mitakshara and the Dayabhaga.

The Hindu Succession Act allows the widow and the mother to inherit the property of the deceased, with this act women can hold their property and have the right to sell, mortgage or give away their property if they so wish. The following were the changes brought about by the Act:

1. It abolished the Dayabhaga and Mitakshara laws of succession.
2. It repealed provisions of Acts relating to succession under matriarchal system.
3. It abolished stridhan.
4. The Act made the Hindu women sole owner of her property.
5. The Act provides simple rules of preference, and where no preference can be made, heirs take the property simultaneously.
6. The Act makes no distinction between male and female heirs.
7. The Act has given rights to certain female heirs to succeed to the interests of the deceased the coparcenaries property.
8. The Act entitles a male to dispose of his interests in Mitakshara coparcener’s property.

Thus, this Act eliminates the foundations on which the joint family was based. The following are the class I heirs: Son, daughter, widow, mother, son of predeceased son, daughter of a predeceased son, son or daughter of a predeceased daughter, widow of a predeceased son, son of a predeceased son of a predeceased son, widow of a predeceased son of a predeceased son.

This Act raised the position of the Hindu woman to a great extent, and also eliminated unhealthy distinctions between various categories of daughters such as married, unmarried, rich or poor.

The right to will away the property has been given to the owner of the property. This is one of the great flaws in the Act. With the right to will away the property,
the owners may circumvent the necessity of devoting the property to daughters and other temple members.

However, the inequality between sons and daughters has been continued by the retention of the Mitakshara coparcenaries. This institution was retained with one compromise. It means that if there is coparcenaries of a father and two sons, the share, a father would have got on petition would be one third. This 1/3rd will be divided among his class I heirs. Thus, while in respect of self-earned property, sons & daughter are equal, for the joint family property the daughter are at a disadvantage.

Christian Law of Inheritance: The scheme of succession to the property of a male in institute is explained below:

1. Widow: If the deceased has left a widow but no lineal descendants or collaterals she takes the entire estate.If he has left no lineal descendants but there are ascendants or collaterals she takes one third of the property. A widow may be excluded from inheritance by a valid contact made before her marriage.
2. Lineal Descendants: In the presence of the widow, the lineal descendants (e.g., children and descendants of children) take 2/3rd of the estate. Otherwise, they take the whole of the estate. If they are of equal degree they share equally. The division is per capita. In reckoning degrees, children are of the first degree, and every generation descending constitutes a degree. So the grand children are 2 degrees removed from the deceased. If the lineal descendants are of different degrees of kindred, the division is per stripes. That is, there are as many shares as there are branches of descendants who are nearest in degree and the share of a branch is allotted to the representatives of that branch. So if there are two children and three grand children by a predeceased child, there will be three shares, each child taking one share and the three grand children by a predeceased child, there will be three shares, each child taking one share and the three grand children taking the share of their deceased parent.
3. Father: When there are no lineal descendants, after deducting the share of the widow (half share) the remaining half share goes to the father.
4. Mother: If the father is dead, the mother takes the whole of the property (after deducting widow’s half share) when there are no brothers and sisters or their children.
5. Brothers, Sisters and their Children: If the mother also is dead, brothers, sisters and their children take the property. Each living brother and sister takes a share which would have been allotted to their parents if they had been alive. Even if the mother is alive, she cannot exclude brother, sisters and their children wholly. She is allotted one share and the distribution is effected among the brothers, sisters and their children as already mentioned.
6. Nearest of Kin: In the absence of lineal descendants, parents, brothers and sisters, the relatives who are in the nearest degree of kindred share equally after deducting the widow’s share (if there is a widow).

Succession to Female Intestate: The husband of the deceased has the same rights which the widow has in respect of the husband’s property of his dies interface. The widower thus takes the widow’s place in the scheme of succession. With this different, the scheme of succession is the same.

Family law of Christians, Parsis etc: Special provision in the case of Christians other than Indian Christians: In the case of Christians other than Indian Christians, when there are no lineal descendants the widow (or widower) is entitled to the first 5,000 rupees out of the estate of the deceased. If the estate is worth more than Rs. 5,000 the excess devotes according to the rules mentioned above.

Muslim Law: Muslim women enjoy rights of inheritance to property, as fully and absolutely as men. As a general rule, the share of inheritance of a female is half the share of a male of the same degree. This difference is however offset by a claim which every Muslim wife has against her husband-an absolute obligation to maintenance which every Muslim husband owes to his wife

Legislation regarding Marriage

Special Marriage Act of 1954: The only condition necessary for a valid marriage under this Act is that
the man must be over 21 yrs of age and the woman over 18, and neither has a spouse living at the time of marriage.

The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955: For the first time in the history of the Hindus, the sanction of customary law was done away with, and a uniform legal standard for all Hindus was enforced. The term ‘Hindu’ was also legally defined for the purpose of the Bill. One of the main conditions for this Act is that neither party has a spouse living at the time of marriage Thus, both polygamy nor polyandry practices under the old laws were abolished once for all. The Act also raised the age of marriage for girls to 18 and for boys to 21.

Widow Remarriage: Widow Remarriage was made legal when an Act was passed in 1856 under the initiative of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

Rights related to Divorce: According to traditionalists divorce was unknown in Hindu law. Even today divorce is not a socially accepted norm among many sections, and considerable sections of Hindus society look with disfavor on the idea of dissolving a marriage.

Customary Divorce: Contrary to the general notion regarding the undissolvability of Hindu marriage a large section of Hindus among the lower castes have traditionally practiced divorce. These customary forms of divorce are recognized both socially and judicially. The usual forms are (a) by mutual consent, (b) unilaterally at the pleasure of the husband or by the abandonment of the wife, (c) by the dead of divorce.

Usually customary divorces are through the intervention of the traditional and Panchayats or caste tribunals. Therefore in states where this has been customary, the courts have not permitted Panchayats to take upon themselves to dissolve a marriage.

Divorce under Hindu Marriage Act 1955: According to this Act divorce is permitted in all Hindu of marriages. The Hindu marriage Act makes provision both for judicial separation as well as for divorce. The grounds are less stringent for judicial separation since, unlike divorce, it does not put an end to the marriage but merely excuses the parties from cohabitation. Again, the court can, on the application from either party, agree to a restitution of conjugal rights, and if a degree is given and if for two years after a degree for judicial separation the parties are still separate, they can apply for a divorce.

Grounds for divorce are: (1) Adultery, (2) Conversion to another religion, (3) Unsoundness of mind for a continuous period of three years, (4) Leprosy or venereal disease, (5) Renunciation of the world, (6) Not being heard of for 7 years or more, and (7) Failure to resume cohabitation two years after the passing of a degree for judicial separation or of restitution of conjugal rights. An additional ground for divorce has been granted to a wife where there is a co-wife or wives living Alimony has also to be paid by the husband depending on the property held by either party.

Divorce in Islam: The husband can divorce his wife without even assigning a reason and without resorting to the court. He has only to utter the word “Talaq” three times. The Islamic religion expects women to observe fidelity. When this obligation of marital union was not fulfilled the husband could divorce his unchaste wife. The Muslim wife can dissolve her marriage in two ways: by obtaining a judicial degree or with the consent of her husband. For the former, the circumstances are necessary as described in the Dissolution of the Muslim Marriage Act.

Divorce among Christians: Adultery, desertion for three years, imprisonment for seven years or more, cruelty, unsound mind, leprosy, absence of news about him for seven or more years, lapse of two years after the passing of decree of judicial separation, failure to
comply with a decree of conjugal rights or when both the parties request the court that they have been living separately for a period of one year or more and that they have mutually agreed that the marriage should be dissolved.

Prohibition of Dowry Act, 1961: From time immemorial, the respectable type of marriage in India has been the giving away of one’s daughter, together with cash or ornaments or anything else the father could give her later, with the development of nuclear families, the young woman immediately on marriage became the mistress of her house, and parents began to search for independent salary earners especially with secure government jobs. These young men are much in demand and financial inducements were offered by girl’s parents to make marriage proposals easily acceptable. A great deal of bargaining went on before a marriage proposal was finally accepted. The dowry system was not confined to the Hindus, other communities also found it worthy of emulation. And throughout the country, especially among the middle classes with limited income, a girl growing into maturity became a perpetual source of wearing to her parents. According to the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, giving or receiving any property or valuable security by parents of either party to a marriage or by any other person before or after the marriage as consideration for the marriage of the said parties, but does not include donor, becomes an offence punishable with imprisonment or fine or both.

Law legalizing Abortion: The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971, is another legal provision which seeks to project women’s interests. It provides that a pregnancy may be terminated whether the length of the pregnancy does not exceed 20 weeks and if two or more medical practitioners are of the opinion that the continuance of the pregnancy would involve a risk to the life of the pregnant women or of grave injury to her physical or mental health.

Effect of Legislators: The above mentioned laws are intended to bring the legal status of women in equality with men. But the attempt has not become a reality. The unfortunate part is that most women in rural areas and even in developed urban areas are quite ignorant of the laws, and not much trouble is taken by the authorities to make people awake of them. Many laws are thrust aside by orthodox leaders or the people themselves, drawing excuses from traditions and customs. In order to remove the social inequalities in the status of women it is necessary that laws are implemented adequately and people educated to follow than to make laws a reality.An awakening movement is necessary. Another problem which inhibits enforcement of social legislations concerns the attitudes of men.

Since men continue to head the family and do not approve of granting equality to women, the idea of granting legal rights continues to remain a far cry. There is a Dowry Prohibition Act, but this is ineffective in practice mainly because dowry given at the time of marriage may be construed as presents or gifts which are not prohibited by law. The fundamental thing that is necessary is that people’s attitudes should change.

Answer : Child marriages have been very common in our country. According to the 1931 census, 72 per cent marriages in India were per formed before 15 years of age and 34 per cent before ten years of age. Since then, there has been a continuous increase in the mean age of marriage is estimated to be continuously increasing, yet a large number of girls even today marry at an age at which they are not ready for marriage either socially and emotionally, or psychologically and chronologically.

In fact, in those days age at marriage, particularly among the females was very low. Child marriage was given a religious tinge and violation of this social system attributed to annoyance of God. In India even today marriage is considered a compulsion because mostly the girls are not economically self-sufficient and parents in many cases particularly in the rural areas, still consider it their right to marry their girls at an age they consider fit. The following socio-cultural factors responsible for the variation of age of a marriage in India.

I. Religion: India is land of many religions in which different religions have different ages at marriage. Christians have the highest mean age at marriage and are followed by the Sikhs, the Muslims and the Hindus.

II. Caste Structure: Differences in age at marriage exist not only among different religions and religious communities but also among different castes as well. The females of depressed castes have lowest mean age at marriage followed by Brahmins, and other castes. In some states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, the females of the Brahmins have lowest means age at marriage. In fact in many states, Brahmins and the low castes on the one hand and Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas on the other are very near with regard to the age at marriage. The difference being hardly of a year or so between the two groups.

III. Economic conditions of the community: It is observed that the rich try to delay the marriage of their children and wish to see them fully settled in life before the marriage is arranged.

IV. Social Conditions: In some cases it is socially desirable that the girl should be marriage at the earliest. Similarly in some societies dowry system forces the poor to delay the marriage. Again considerations of huge expenses towards marriage, education, etc., do influence age at marriage. In urban areas education has become more or less compulsory both for the boys and girls whereas that is not the case in rural areas.

V. Employment: In urban areas, marriage are delayed because it is considered desirable that both the boys and girls should be suitable employed. In some cases, where environments are such that the chances of getting the boys and girls spoiled are maximum that there is obvious haste in getting the child married at an early date than otherwise.

Answer : The Hindu social organisation has been well known for its metaphysical, ethical and cultural characteristics. A large volume of authentic literature related to it are found in the Vedas, Upnishad Purans, Gita, Ramayan etc. According to Hindu view man is altogether composed of the desires (Kama). As are his desires, so his discretion/insight (Kratu); as is his discretion, so are his deeds, as are his deeds, so is the destiny. Hence, if a man has left any desires in him while he lives, he takes birth again, but if no desires are left in him, he becomes one with Brahma (God). Thus, it is desire that binds a man to this world and makes him liable to birth and death. Karma (deed) is thus only a connecting link between desires and rebirth. Hence, on getting rid of desires, the mortals becomes immortal and attain salvation (moksha).

The Gita presents a new philosophy of life-the philosophy of Karma. The Gita insisted on sublimation rather than eradication of desires and that was to be done by knowing the nature of Karma. The Hindu philosophy believes in the continuity of the present with the past in which it is rooted, and its projection into the future. The different phases merely represent differences in emphasis in different historical periods. For example truth is dharma in Satyayuga, Yajna (sacrifice) in Tretayuga, Gyana (knowledge) in Dvaparayuga, and dana (alms) in Kaliyuga. The Hindu philosophy also believes in certain theological ideas such as papa, punya, dharma etc.

Focussing on the basic tenets and the normative principles of Hinduism, it may be said that Hinduism believes in equality, karma and rebirth ideas, moksha or salvation as the ultimate goal of life, toleration as individual character, non-violence as important feature of social life, and the merger of individual soul into the ultimate soul. The normative principles of Hinduism are based on belief, ideals and logic of permissiveness, liberalism, being and becoming creation and destruction, hedonism, utilitarianism, and spiritual transcendence.

Hinduism believes in certain theological ideas such as punarjanma (rebirth), immortality of atma (soul), papa (sin), punya (merit), karma (deeds), dharma (mortality), and moksha (salvation). The idea of karma teaches a Hindu that he is born into a particular social group because of his deeds he performed in his previous life (Purva janma). The ideas of dharma tells him that if he follows good deed in the present birth, he will be born in a high social group in the next birth. The idea of moksha reminds him that his papa and punya will determine the release of his soul from the chain of birth and death.

Hierarchy in Hinduism exists in terms of (i) a division in Varna and castes; (ii) in charismatic qualities (guna) of individual such as Sattva, rajas and tamas and (iii) in values regarding life goal, like kama, artha, dharma and moksha. Besides these, the idea of pollution and purity is equally important in Hinduism. The concept of pollution is related to the birth and not to cleanliness. A person has to undergo purificatory rites after the violation of rules of purity.

The most noticeable common feature of Hinduism is its belief in idol worship. The worshipped idol is not uniform but it varies according to the sect. Each sects keeps its idol in a separate temple and worships it on specific occasions. Hinduism is not a uniform monolitihc religion, but a juxtaposition of flexible religious sects.

Another mythological feature of Hinduism is “Purusartha”. The four fold value order, kama, artha, dharma and moksha, based on the understanding that the human personality has many needs. Man needs food and sex, power and property and human society and relations with the universe. The satisfaction of need is karma. The satisfaction of needs of power and property is artha. The satisfaction of needs of social order is dharma. The satisfaction of needs of oneness with the universe is moksha. Those who reasonably perform these four pursuit of life are considered as Purush or complete man.

“Asharm vyavastha” is another importaints feature of the Hindu social organisation. There are four Ashram in all, each consists of a period of 25 years. Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (family life), Vanaprastha (retired life) and Sanyasa (life of renunciation). The first two provide the training and environment for the Pravriti Marg and the last two for the Nivritti Marg of development. Each stage has its own specific duties.

Answer : The structure and functional sides of our traditional joint family as well as the nuclear family are vastly changing in the emerging modern industrial and capitalist global socio-economic order. There are so many factors which have attacked its structure and functions and given it a new direction. I.P. Desai, in his book, Social Monograph, some aspect of family in Mahua" has argued about some factors which have made the joint family unstable. These factors are industrialization, urbanization, means of transportation and communication, social security, impact of western education and culture, impact of legislation, transfer of family function, family quarrels and feminist movements. On the other hand, Milton Singer has argued about four major factors which have made the family unstable. These are residential mobility, occupational mobility, scientific and technical education and monetisation. He has also indentified five factors which have affected the family most. These are education, urbanization, industrialization, change in the institution of marriage and the legislative measures.

Education: According to the 2001 census, the female literacy in India has rapidly increased. The enrolment of girl is the school, college and professional courses are also rapidly increasing especially in the urban area. This increasing education not only brings change in the philosophy of life of men and women but also provides a new avenue of employment to the latter. After becoming economically independent, women demand more voice in family affairs and refuse to accept anybody's dominance over them. I.P. Desai and Aileen Ross have also referred to the reciprocal influence of educational system and family system on each other. In his study of 423 families in Mahuva, I.P. Desai found that with increase in the educational level, jointness increased and nuclearity decreased.

Urbanisation: With the increase in industrialization, the process of urbanization is also rapidly increasing in India. M.S. Gore has maintained that the urban families show a shift away from joint family norm in their attitudes, role perception and in their behaviour. I.P. Desai observed significant relationship between duration of the stay of the family in urban area and traditional jointness. Louis Wirth also believed that city is not conducive to the traditional type of family life.

Industrialization: Before industrialization, family was a principal unit of production but with industrialization, it has transformed into a consumption unit. Secondly, the factory employment has freed young adult from direct dependence upon their family. As their wages have made them financially independent, the authority of the head of the household has weakened. Further M.S.A. Rao, M.S. Gore and Milton Singer have shown that jointness is more preferred and prevalent in business communities.

Change in Marriage System: The freedom in the mate selection has promoted inter-caste marriage which in turn has affected the relationship structure in the family. Secondly, the marital breakdown has weakened the corporate authority of family.

As far as the survival of the family in the modern crisis is concerned, it seems very difficult because divorce, separation and women's autonomy are rapidly rising. Divorce produces problems not only for the parents but also for the children who suffer emotional conflict, loss of parent and often financial privation and destitution. Secondly the illicit sexual activity, family desertion, frequent conflict, frequent delnquent behaviour of the children are rapidly increasing in the modern society. Thus, it would be very difficult to say that, in future, family would maintain its dignity and social relevance.

Ogburn has argued some major function of family before modern times and the change which occured in them with rapid advances in technology. These function are economic, protective, religious, recreational, educational etc. The functions of the family are being performed by some other institutions. This process has been called "defunctionalization" by Ogburn . Zimmerman has argued that family is changing from trustee to localistic and atomistic. Ross had concluded that family is changing from large joint to small joint or nuclear family. Parsons has also argued about the structural isolation of the family.

Thus, overall, it may be concluded that, in India, family has largely disorganised but it is still performing important functions for the individual and society. This is such an institution in India which will continue to exist but with modification and changed form. These modification and change at the structural and functional level of family are due and conducive for the family and society and individual also. The emotional support and safety-valve provided by the family are of worth importance. The kinship bond and entire social relationship are based on the strongness of the family. The cojugal, filial and fraternal bonds continue to remain strong in our society.

Answer : The term "generation gap" denotes the differences of opinion, values, aspiration and consideration between the old and the new generation of the society. The old generation consists of parents, grand parents, teachers, old age politician etc. who have deep experiences and knowledge related to various walks of life such as social, political, economic and technological. On the other hand, the new generation consists of youth who, in all age, has been known for his revolutionary ideas and change. Both the old and new generations in the modern Indian society is characterised by disparities of opinions and views. The cultural continuity between the two consecutive generation is lost. This, in turn, generates inter-generational conflict and renders the older generation largely incapable of playing its role in socialising the young. On the other hand, the youth having snapped its cultural ties with the older generation faces the crisis of rootlessness and directionless ness.

Generational disaffiliation is a characteristic feature of the societies experiencing rapid social change. Thus, the problem of inter-generational gap is to be found among all developing societies including India which is undergoing a process of rapid modernization. Modernization leads to emergence of new structure and new values, norms, belief and perception. If the process of modernization is gradually spread over centuries, the differences in the culture of an old and new generation is not very significant and the older generation is able to adapt to new values and ideas and thus continuity of cultural traditional is maintained. But if the pace of modernization is very rapid, as in the case of countries like India where centuries of development are telescoped into life span of one individual, the adaptation to new values, norms and belief by the older generation becomes a problem. On the other hand, the youth grow up, being specialised in the modern values, norms and belief. Thus inter-generational gap becomes inevitable.

In the post independent India, the phenomena of generational disaffiliation is confined largely to the urban areas and to a lesser extent to those rural areas where a significant change and development have taken place. Most of the older generation in these areas have their early specialisation in the rural social setting and steeped in traditional values, while the youth is being socialised in the urban social setting and are exposed to modern ideas and values leading to differences in perception and behavioural pattern of two generations. The modern education inculcates the value of egalitarianism, individualism, freedom and secularism which come into conflict with the older values of hierachy, conformity to the tradition and obedience and subordination to the elders. Industrialisation and urbanisation have created new and diverse occupations which enable the individual to be independent of his extended kin groups and caste. So far as earning the livelihood is concerned, urbanisation tends to create physical separation between the older and younger members because of high geographical mobility which has become associated with modern occupation, also earning for social mobility and for improving one's standard of living by adopting an increasingly consumption oriented life style tends to create differences between two generation. Further the expansion of mass media and modern education has contributed towards the creation of an international youth culture. As a result of which Indian youth is increasingly adopting Western values and life styles. On the other hand, given influence of secular and scientific education, the present day youth is not ready to accept the traditional values and norms blindly. Rather the youth often tends to question the traditional values and tends to cynically reject the way of life of the older generation as moribund tradition. A.M. Shah has pointed out that the demographic factor is also responsible for inter-generation gap.

The problem of youth unrest is one of the crucial problems of India. The present day youth of India is facing the problems of unemployment, role conflict, emotional stress, educational problem, adjustment in the society etc. Inter-generational gap is one of the reasons of the youth unrest. The ignorance to the traditional values and lack of guidance from the elderly members of the family have resulted in deviation of the youth. Youth find themselves at the cross-road in deciding goal and means to achieve it. The conflict of culture and tradition have disorganised the thinking and personality of the youth. Secondly, the youth's personality is not stabilised due to improper socialisation which resulted in family conflict. Thus the role expectation from the youth are impraired. Youth themselves are not able to know which types of roles they should play and what the family members and society expect from them. The another dimension is that the traditional mode of education is not able to provide sufficient employment to the youth. The elderly members of the family have greatly failed to provide them guidances related to adjustment or job opportunities in the changing world. The new avenues of job in the information technology and professional fields have naturally widened the disparities. To adjust in the global and privatised world, the youth is expected to follow the modern values and life style which often clash with the traditional values pattern of the Indian society.