Pupulation Dynamics

Answer : Women constitute about half of world population but India has shown disproportionate sex ratio where female population is relatively lower compared to males. The growing gap between women and men is clear from the 2001 census which shows a declining trend in sex ratio. Based on estimates it was found that there were 986 females against 1000 males all over the world in the year 2000. However, in India the proportion isas low as 933 according to 2001 census. Some of the states and union territories such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Daman and Diu etc. have extremely adverse sex ratio going down as low as 874 and 709. However, the census of 2001 also shows some of the states such as Kerala and Puducherry with a sex ratio of 1058 and 1001 respectively as comparable to developed countries like Japan at 1041.

Although the sex ratio of India has improved a little bit between 1991 and 2001, the sex ratio for the age group of 0-6 years has declined from 945 to 927 in the same period. This dramatic fall in numbers of girl children is rooted in biasness present in our society against female gender. For this our socio-cultural factor is more responsible, such as extreme form of patriarchy which denies even the reproductive or fertility rights to women. This has been resulted in son- preference and female foeticide. The preference is finding more and more expression through the abuse of modern technology like ultrasound, scanning and amniocentesis are major causes of declining population of females. Legal ban has been imposed on such practices but it continues in absence of effective implementation. The son-preference is also exhibited in the nutritional and medical neglect of female child. The increasing practices of dowry along with religious superstitions is also responsible fordeclining sex ratio.

Apart from this, women have been treated as objects by the male dominated society in India. At the same time, male supremacy emanates from caste, class and patriarchy. Women are treated as Dalits (downtrodden) and inferior in their own families by parents in-laws and even by their husbands. Sati, Slavery, child marriage, the prohibition of widow marriage and lack of women’s right have also contributed in declining female status in society. All these factors have created a social perception casting girls as liablities economically and socially. All these have resulted in such practices as purchasing girls from poor sections of other states and keeping them as wives. This kind of practices have widely reported in some regions of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

Answer : The history of human culture is replete with examples of systematic oppression of women. One form of oppression of women is the practice of female infanticide. This practice was common in many parts of India, with some tribal groups, when the British came to India. It is found to be prevalent in societies where women's status is very low (for e.g. the Kallars in Tamil Nadu) and there is a strong preference for a male child. The custom of infanticide seems also to be motivated by the relative economic backwardness of the community, and the social importance of the males. Anothers practice that lowers the economic value of the female child is the practice of dowry. A daughter's marriage costs a lot of money and jewellery. The agony of parents does not end with dowry during the marriage of their daughter.

Thus, the economic overtones in the form of dowry and post marriage expenditure rather than the desire to kill, is the real culprit. This has been reflected in the responses of mothers who become emotional and they do not appear ruthless but seem to be unfortunate and hopeless victims of desperately cruel circumstances. There is also religious tone to this crime. There is a religious superiority for male children whereby, when a person dies, the rites can be performed by the son alone. Hence, the desire to have a male child is drilled into the psyche of the Indian mind.

Answer : Religion and caste are the basic constituents of Indian society. In addition, type of family may also be considered an important factor determining the cultural practices, particularly those related to mother and child care such as pregnancy and delivery care, food and nutrition, breast-feeding and supplementary feeding and medical care of mother and baby.

Studies conducted in different parts of India have demonstrated that there are marginal to substantial differences in infant mortality by religion, caste and type of family. Generally, infant mortality was found to be higher among Hindus than among non-Hindus, and among Hindus it was higher among scheduled castes than among caste Hindus. However, Sandhya found in parts of Andhra Pradesh that caste differences in infant mortality were not significant, but the IMR was higher among children of non-nuclear families than among children of nuclear families. On the other hand, some other studies have shown that infant mortality was higher in the case of nuclear families than in the of joint family. The findings indicate that in non-nuclear families the presence of other members, especially the elders, is either an asset or a constraint for the survival of the young ones. In the former case the elders help in taking care of the children, while in the latter case they curtail the autonomy of the parents and insist on traditional practices of mother and child care, most of which are detrimental to child health and survival. These indicate that the cultural background of individual communities, in certain cases, is an important determinant of infant mortality.

Sex differential in child care is another major cultural factor. It has been observed more or less uniformly that infant mortality is higher among female babies than among male babies and this has often been attributed to the alleged lesser care of female babies than the male babies. Maternal nutrition is another socio-cultural dimension that is related to infant mortality. Nutritional status of the mother during her pregnancy and even during her own childhood is a factor influencing infant mortality.

Answer : There are hosts of socio-cultural factors responsible for the sharp decline of the population of female as compared to male. Presently it has reached 933 female per 1000 male. The most important factor behind this is the low status of women in our society.

Low status involves inaccessibility to power and resources and subjection to disadvantage. This condition is reflected in 39 per cent literacy rate (1991) among women, high mortality rate, disproportionate and low representation in parliament, exclusion from the organised sector of economy.

Indians have also got high preference to the male child. The birth of girl is a cause for mourning. Her bringing up is a saga of deprivation, neglect and discrimination. Today, we have the vigorously growing trend of sex determination of foetus. It is unfortunate for female sex and abortion is not ruled out. The hate of a girl child can be understood by the case of a village in Rajasthan where no girl child opened eyes in the last hundred years.

Adverse sex-ratio for women is also due to differential treatment to male and female sex, differential enumcration of males and females in census, violence against women in the form of dowry deaths, suicide etc. by the victims of rape etc. The maternal mortality due to early marriage of women is also an important factor. All these factors together cause low proportion of women population in our society.

Answer : The age composition of the people in a country is functionally related to component of population change like fertility, mortality, marriage age, migration etc. Its distribution has also its important socio-economic effects. Participation in productive work, income, participation in productive process, level of consumption, and services needed are all affected by age. In India, according to 1991 census 37.8 percent population belong to 0-14 age group, 55.5 percent to 15-59 age group and 6.67 percent are above 60 years; while among females, 37.79 percent belong to 0-14 age group, 55.55 percent to 15-59 age group, and 6.66 are 60+ years of age. It is estimated that by 2000 A.D., about 32 percent of the total population will be below 14 years, 8 percent above 60 years and 60 percent will belong to 15-59 years age group. Since 1951, proportion of population in age group below 15 years has increased owing to decrease in mortality rate. The effect of this age structure are; (1) more allocation of funds to provide for health, medical and educational needs for children; (2) rapid population increase in a year; (3) more dependant working population; and low productivity of labour.

The age group-15-59 is considered as the working population. The data from 1911-1991 census show that the size of the non-working age group 0-14 is gradually increasing whereas the size of working population is reducing. The people below 14 years and above 60 years are considered dependent population. Thus, more and more people are dependent on the working population for food, clothes and shelters. The high proportion of children only reflects a large proportion of unproductive consumers. Thus, the society will experience relative deprivation, unemployment and poverty. The child labour is one of the major problems of India. One of the reasons of it is the population of children is gradually increasing. Those who work in the family are not able to provide the children the basic amenities and education which results in the exploitation of the children in the hazardous industries. Family tension, exploitation of women and disintegration of the joint family are other socio-economic consequences.

Sometimes, there is the incompatibility between the production and consumption. In the production process, only a limited number of population participates while the produced goods are being demanded by the whole population. Thus price rise and inflation in the economy is likely to occur. The unproductive population do not contribute in the socio-economic growth and development of the society. The surplus production produced by the working age group especially for the growth and development are being consumed by the non-working age group.

The urban participation rate in labour force is invariably lower than those in the rural areas for both the sexes. The age specific activity rate of the age group-0-14 indicates the practice of child labour of both males and females in the rural areas as well as the urban areas. In rural areas in 1993-94, it was 1.1 percent in 5-9 age group and 14.1 percent in 10-14 age group among females. In the urban areas it was 0.5 percent among males and 21.5 among females in 10-14 age groups.

With the participation of the women in the working population, the rate of social mobility and occupational diversification are rapidly changing the rural as well as urban socio-economic structure and function. Due to lack of employment in the agriculture, the migration of labour from the rural to urban areas is creating the problems of slum, crime, beggary etc. The problem of old-age people is associated with the changing age-structure of the population. The elderly people need nutritious diet, proper care and sympathy which is greatly expected to be fulfilled by the employed men in the family.

Answer : In India about 70 per cent of the population are living in the rural areas. The agricultural and allied activities like animal husbandry, agro-based small scale industries etc. are the chief sources of livelihood. Nutritional problems, unemployment, poverty, poor style of living etc. are characteristic features of these societies. The flow of capital and cash oriented occupation are not found in the tribal or rural areas, rather, to a great extent, it is still self subsistence type. Due to poor infrastructure even the basic amenities like electricity, water, sanitation, health etc. are hardly met to the village folk. Tradition, religion, customary practices etc. are still affecting, the socio-economic life of the people. On the other hand, in the urban area, about 75 percent of the population are engaged in non-agricultural occupation. The flow of capital and capital based occupations are widely prevalent. The urban society depends on the industry and service sector for the livelihood. The employment opportunity is relatively high in the urban community. The entire means of production and business and commerce activities are meant for surplus production. The per capita income and quality of life in the urban areas are also better than the rural areas. With the development and modernisation, the disparity is continuously increasing. Except some parts of India, the traditional method of agriculture is still being practised. There is the lack of market also.