Question : Relevance of pattern variable in the society change
(2008)
Answer : Pattern variable as propounded by T-Parson talks about dilemma and confusion faced by individuals and conforming to roles differently leading to social change in both traditional and modern society.
Pattern variable means variability of choices given to actor to choose any one out of two as a result of which dilemma can be solved. Pattern variables tell about tension how it affects the actions of actors because actor fails to understand the demand of situation. If it is not rectified then equilibrium, continuity in society will be threatened. Pattern variable is extension of action theory of Parson.
Parson talked about pattern variable a symbolizing pre-modern society driven by expressive motives and values demanding that action must gratify emotion and values are Ascription, Diffusion, Particularism, Collective Orientation and Affectivity.
Pattern variable B symbolizing modern society driven by instrumental motives and values demanding action must go for rational effective gratification and values are Achievement, Specificity, Universalism, Self-orientation and Affective neutrality.
Pattern variables help in adopting particular value according to the demand of the situation and reducing tension, stress and anxiety. In modern and post modern society, multiple roles are being played by individuals, for instance, woman’s affective role of a mother as well as affective neutrality role of a Doctor.
Pattern variable is relevant in choosing achievement value in the selection procedure of modern society. If the selection procedure is based on ascription values like kinship, caste, then there is strain in social role and social goals threatening equilibrium of society. Hence, Pattern variables help in selecting appropriate values to discharge social role according to the demand of situation irrespective of nature of society whether pre-modern or modern.
Question : Indicate social determinants of economic development. Discuss any one sociological perspective analysing backwardness and poverty in the developing societies.
(2007)
Answer : Economic systems are the institutionalized arrangements developed by societies for the production and distribution of goods and services. In simple food gathering-hunting societies with no surplus goods, there was more equality. With the advent of advanced civilizations, idea of private property and competition for goods replaced primitive communal ownership. Inequalities in wealth developed rich and poor classes.
With industrialization the simple division between aristocrats and peasants broke down and a middle class also emerged. Karl Marx’s view that industrialization created the two classes merely the workers (proletariat) and the owners of enterprises (capitalists or bourgeoisie) and that, one was exploited and the other benefitted. Came as an after – effect of industrialization.
With the growth of industrialized cities, the social determinants have changed gradually from personal level to institutional level. The various norms of behaviour, values and beliefs change imperceptibly. The citizen of an industrialized area is not so controlled and guided by norms and values as he had been in a pre-industrialized society.
The industrialized society has no time to check and bring up individual citizen as its preoccupation is in creation of goods mechanically. So the number of deviants may increase and the society may look askance on them and may not seriously chastise them. The various parameters of personal behaviour get merged in the city conglomeration and the new society develops its own determinants.
For example, the family unit which was mainly responsible for production is no more solely responsible. The production has been mechanized and increased many folds by the workers working with machines in a factory. The artistic finishes that were given to handicrafts which showed individual nuances are no more to be seen. The products of industry were uniform.
The various attributes of the society like its stratification marks an era of planned progress. This planning also introduced selective discrimination of people and gave special benefits to certain areas and certain people. All this amounted to a great pressure on the changing pattern of social determinants.
Thus, a society is not a stagnant constant structure. It is changing continuously and these changes are the real challenges to sociologists, who have to study objectively the various reasons for the changes, the various courses the changes take, shape and the resultant social mobility in various spheres. It is the continuing changes that interest sociologists and keep them always alert.Question : Features of pre-industrial economic system.
(2007)
Answer : The pre-industrial economy is generally characterised by the absence of market exchange and general-purpose money. If at all market exchange exists, it tends to be primarily a barter exchange. On the other hand, the industrial economic market exchange based on general-purpose money as universal system of exchange is inevitable.
Secondly, the traditional rationality and traditional action are its important features. Principle of patrimonialism and patriarchalism are the predominant type of authority in the economic field. All parts of the society are alike because all members perform similar task. Durkheim has called it mechanical solidarity. The division of labour being low and skill being simple, the productivity is also limited. Thus, the size of the group or society tends to be small because a large size of group cannot be sustained with limited production. The economy of such a society is primarly geared to meet the subsistence needs alone.
The inequality of wealth is almost non-exitent. The reciprocal and redistributive type of exchange are the common example of these societies. ‘Wasi’, ‘Urigubui’, ‘Jajmani system’ and ‘Gimwali’ are the common system of exchange in the society.
Question : Social determinants of Economic Develop-ment.
(2005)
Answer : Economic development employs two things — (1) Economic growth which lead to increase in production and generation of income and (2) equitable distribution of these income among population to improve the quality of life. Although economic development does not necessary imply industrialization but there is no historical precedent of substantial increase in per capita income without diverson of both labour and capital and labour out of agriculture.
Some of the important social determinants of economic development are as follows:
The above mentioned conditions are based upon the experience of European society most of which was subjected to colonial exploitation, these social condition could not emerge and so economic development did not take place. In these societies economic development gathered momentum only as a result of emergence of welfare state which assume responsibility to mobilise resources and to create all other conditions like education, popularization of scientific ideas breaking down of rigid stratification barriers and creation of achievement motivation. Thus while the impetus of economic growth in the western societies came from below, in the case of third world societies, economic development is the result of using the level of state power.
Question : Examine in detail the impact of new global economy on work organisation and family structure in India.
(2004)
Answer : New global economy is used mostly from the process of globalisation. It is the process of integration of world economies in conditions of free market. Free market envisages free flow of trade and capital and movement of persons across national borders. Due to this economy new world trade order opening up of commercial markets. Historically, the world had experience periods of economic integration even in the later half of the nineteenth century. But the process was interrupted by the world wars, economic depression and restrictions on the movement of people till almost the 1970’s. However, the process of opening up new global economy received new impetus during the last two decades.
According to the United Nations study in 1999, ’the era of globalisation is opening many opportunities for millions of people around the world.’ The study suggests that it offers enormous potential to eradicate poverty in the twenty-first century. Unfortunately this trend could not be followed by developing countries. It has given rise to serious risks for countries that are unable to become internationally competitive- the negative impact of this economy are more dominant compared to its positive potential. Increased trade, new technologies, foreign investment and expanding internal connection have, no doubt, led to substantial economic growth in the world today but the gains of economic growth are not evenly distributed among different countries. There are several problems that emanate from this basic weakness.
Now global economy is relatively free from regulation. But it enjoys the support of powerful capitalist states. A number of international economic institutions such as the international monetary fund (IMF), the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) reinforce the ideology of global capitalism. There countries and institutions create the political and legal conditions for the global market. These conditions have been created by steps like of removal of barriers to international trade and services, (b) movement of capital, (c) global protection of property rights, (d) privatisation of state companies, (e) deregulation of business activities, and (f) phasing out of welfare services. All these steps have reduced the capacity of the nation states to provide essential social services to the people. The effects of structural adjustment policies in Africa, Asia and the South Pacific imposed by the IMF and the World Bank have been no less than disastrous. They have decreased the access to education, health and nutrition to the underprivileged sections of the population. Of course, it has extended these facilities mainly to the most privileged groups. Even in Europe, where the welfare state was born, there has been severe reduction in these facilities.
At present, for developing countries like India, the risks are more than the advantages and opportunities. The most direct impact has been on jobs. Wages in the current labour market are generally low. Intense competition for employment means that workers have low capacity to bargain in most countries. Failure to create sufficient employment has undermined the prospects for poverty reduction. The number of people living in poverty fell in mid-1990s but then started to rise again in almost all countries. In fact, there has been a remarkable increase in inequality over the past decades. In India, the rich can easily adjust to the new environment, but the poor are becoming poorer.
In fact, new global economy has been affecting indigenous economy and industries negatively, Indigenous industries are not in a position to compete with global industries because of global industries are technologically more developed. Therefore, the notion of employment is going down in recent decade and poverty is increasing. At the same time. The most privileged section i.e. rich or upper class people are benefited from this economy. Due to this fact, the hiatus between rich and poor are increasing and this hiatus may create more to problem in the coming days.
As far as, the impact of new global economy on family structure is concerned it affects on the value, norms and tradition that has in traditional society. The direct impact is that joint family structure disintegrates and it converts to nuclear family. This value affects the old and children of that family. The notion of individuality is increasing and the people are becoming more self-centric rather than co-operative. It is because everybody wants to work in various organisations for the fulfillment of desirable needs. At the same time consumerist culture also plays a very crucial role in this context. Due to this feud, the gender relation i.e. male-female relation are changing and study shows that the rate of divorce is going up in present time. The entire facts show that the opening a new global economic order is not suitable for developing countries.
Question : Industrialization and Social change
(2002)
Answer : Industrialization is one of the important factors of social change in present age. Technology affects society greatly in that a variation in technology causes a variation in some institution or custom. Invention and discoveries are the significant characteristics of our age. The present age in often called the age of power. Ogburn says, “Technology changes society by changing our environments to which we in trun adapt. This change is usually in the material environments and the adjustment we make with change often modifies customs and social institutions”. Industrialization is often followed by urbanisation, emergence of modern education, modern cultural values, democracy, rationality, the emergence of new institutions, associations and organisations etc. Talcott Parsons has argued about “isolated nuclear family” which is the prominent type of family form in the industrial society. Durkheim observed that application of technology results in high division of labour, specialisation, individualism, inter-dependance, loose collective conscience and organic solidarity in the society. The development of mass-media and transportation are the consequences of industrial development. The modern means of communication, has given birth to a composite culture around the world or what is known as “global village”. Ogburn has argued about “Cultural Lag” which refers to the rapid development of material culture and very slow development of non-material culture.
Question : Emerging pattern of sex roles in modern society.
(2001)
Answer : The modern industrial capitalist society which is now about to enter in the post industrial society phase is characterized by high division of labour, competition, differentiation, inequality, individualism, low collective conscience, interdependence etc. In this complex system, the traditional role expectation from the male & female in the society has been drastically changed. Now the radius of roles performed by women has been largely expanded. Now, they are not merely confined to the household works or child rearing practises but economically they are effeciently doing jobs in different sectors or spheres of life. They prefer to enjoy more autonomous & independent life style and have already dared to make pace with their male counterparts in different fields like agriculture, technology, polity, economy etc. Thus, in the male dominating society, once again, the status of women are gaining currency. This is applicable not only in India but around the world. The women power is gradually emerging which may be a threat to the male dictatorship and domination. This discrepancy between the sex role has also resulted in increasing number of divoce & rivalaries among the conjugal family. The seperation is also largely increasing which is ultimately resulting in weak social cohesion or broken families in the society. In case of western & European societies the sex differentiation is acute because according to Durkheim where there is an organic solidarity the collective conscience will be weak & differentiation will be very high.
Question : Social determinants of economic development
(2000)
Answer : Economic development involves three areas. First, there should be rise in economic growth i.e., growth in the total output of goods and services. Secondly, there should be an equal distribution of the resources so that all sections of society may benefit and there should be reduction of absolute poverty.
The goal of economic development is determined by various social factors. One is the rise in literacy rate. Unless people are educated which involves learning of skills, the aim of economic growth is not achievable. The system of stratification should be open so that one's personal quality, aptitude and work etc. count for determination of place in social hierarchy. Such system of stratification motivates people to work in order to achieve. Values like deferred gratification, secularism, rationality, individuality, involvement in work to avoid sensual pleasure, this-worldly asceticism etc. also play a major role in economic development. Besides these, creation of nation-states which develop a rational calculable law is considered important. Myrdal also adds institutions and politics in the list of social determinants. That is, for economic growth, the institutions of contract, credit, market, bank, stock-exchange etc. are indispensable. Simulataneously a polity which gives stability to the system and freedom and equality to citizens work as lynchpin of economic development.
Question : Features of pre-industrial economic system.
(1998)
Answer : The pre-industrial economy is generally characterised by the absence of market exchange and general-purpose money. If at all market exchange exists, it tends to be primarily a barter exchange. On the other hand, the industrial economic market exchange based on general-purpose money as universal system of exchange is inevitable. Secondly, the traditional rationality and traditional action are its important features. Principle of patrimonialism and patriarchalism are the predominant type of authority in the economic field. All parts of the society are alike because all members perform similar task. Durkheim has called it mechanical solidarity. The division of labour being low and skill being simple, the productivity is also limited. Thus, the size of the group or society tends to be small because a large size of group cannot be sustained with limited production. The economy of such a society is primarly geared to meet the subsistence needs alone. The inequality of wealth is almost non-exitent. The reciprocal and redistributive type of exchange are the common example of these societies. ‘Wasi’ ,‘Urigubui’, 'Jajmani system' and 'Gimwali' are the common system of exchange in the society.
Question : Types of Exchange.
(1996)
Answer : In sociology, Exchange refers to the process of allocation or distribution of scarce goods and service among the members of society. According to Karl Polanyi there are three basic modes of allocation. These are; Reciprocity, Redistribution and Market Exchange. Every empirical economy exhibits at least one of these principles of distribution. Most are characterised by all the three.
Reciprocity: It includes exchange of goods among people who are bound in non market and non-hierarchical relationship between one-another. Most vivid system of reciprocity are those based on kinship obligation but there are many other bases to which reciprocal transfer of goods is essential. "Wasi" and "Kula" among the Trobriand Islanders and the modern gift exchange are its example.
Redistribution: It is defined by Polanyi as the systematic movement of goods towards and administrative centre and their re-allotment by authorities at the centre. Modern illustration of this type of exchange is the tax institution, which redistribute wealth in the society. "Pokala" among Trobrianders and Jajmani system in the traditional India are also examples of redistributive exchange.
Market Exchange: It is the exchange of goods and services at prices determined by the law of supply and demand. It is essentially an exchange based on contractual relation. It can be categoriesed into two types.
(i) Monetised Exchange: Involving general purpose money which acts as a medium of exchange and as a standard of values.
(ii) Barter Exchange: In which the general purpose money is not involved.
Market exchange involving general money is the most common type of exchange found in modern industrial capitalist society. Market exchange especially of the barter type also exists in simple societies. However, pre-industrial type of economy have only periodic market. Gimbali among the Trobrianders is an example of market type of exchange.
Question : Social consequences of economic development.
(1995)
Answer : The social change and economic development are mutually correlated. Economic development such as living standard of people, high social mobility, consumption of modern goods etc. ensures the social change in society. The traditional values, customs, economic institutions, political institutions, family, marriage and kinship are gradually changing and adopting the modern values. The role of agriculture is gradually decreasing and industry and services sector are taking the significant position. The two major social problems such as unemployment and poverty have been lessened with the high agricultural output and establishment of the industry. The traditional family has been transforming into the isolated nuclear family in the urban areas. Specialisation, division of labour, individualism, mechanisation etc. have, to a great extent, changed the traditional kinship bonds. The media and communication network have brought all the people of the world on single platform, which is known as globalisation. Man has become like a machine and known as the "organisation man". The pollution, crime and tension in society have disorganised the individual, group and social institutions. Thus economic development has varied impact on the overall development of society.
