System Of Kinship

Answer : Family is a universal social fact present in all types of societies irrespective of marital status of individuals. Family helps to study how human sexual reproduction is institutionalized and of how children, who are the product of sexual unions, are assigned places within a kinship system.

Lawrence Stone said that family passes through three different stages: from open-nuclear family of tribal society to patriarchal joint family of traditional society to closed-romantic nuclear family of modern society.

In nuclear family of tribal society there was equal status for both man and woman. As agricultural activities progressed and feudalism emerged, the patriarchal family with low status women came into existence. After Renaissance, Industrial Revolution and Urbanization there was a break down of joint family due to migration.

Modern society is witnessing nuclear families but still due to strong primordial linkages as in Indian societies there is increase of extended nuclear families particularly in urban areas in which one or more family members from rural areas come and stay in urban areas either for a seeking a job or for education.

After globalization, there is increase of marriages driven by romanticism cutting the barriers of caste and kinship, giving rise to close romantic nuclear families.

Forms of family are also undergoing changes due to rapid social change propelled through communication revolution and globalization. In modern society, women are working outside home and there by diluting patriarchcal form and giving rise to matrilineal family.

However, in post modern society as well as modern society due to rise in divorce has compelled women to live along her children giving rise to female centric or mother centric family.

As Giddenes said family in modern society is undergoing through series of crisis but at the sometime it is not on the verge of disappearance because man lives in family despite the fact it goes for serial monogamy.

Answer : In India, the traditional joint family was a unit of production and consumption. Today, with the advent of diversified occupations, members in the joint family tend to seek their fortunes outside.The contemporary family is a unit of consumption. Particularly in technologically advanced societies, the family has a vital economic function as a unit of consumption. Money is spent on land in the name of the individual rather than by the individual. Thus, the modern family demands carpets, washing machines, etc.

But we must not succumb to the tendency for exaggeration in assessing the changes in the family. For one thing, long after wage labour become a prime source of income for most households, many families still continued to produce goods for domestic consumption. Even urban families in the early stages of the 20th century and even today most of rural India supplement their diets by keeping poultry and growing vegetables.

Thus, families in the west and in India differ in two important aspects: (1) in the west there is a move away from an emphasis upon extended kinship groupings but this is not totally true of India. (2) There is a radical change in the quality of the conjugal relationship; industrial capitalism is seen to have encouraged egalitarianism in marriage, a fundamental shift from pre-industrial society. However, this does not seem to have occurred in India. We are still far from the ideal of equality.

I.P. Desai argues that in contemporary India, the residentially nuclear family is embedded in social, cultural and other non-social environments which are not the same as those in the societies of the west. In India to a very great extent, the elementary family still relies on extra- familial kinship in normal and difficult times and kinship obligations continue to be fulfilled. The physical and social separation that occurs because of the migration of individuals and families is offset by frequent visits, mutual help, communication and counselling.

Generally, in India, the traditionally extended family exists as a functional unit in most ways except residentially. At the international level, practically every elementary family is closely dependent on its extended kinship network for all its major activities.

Answer : The family is the basic unit of society. Man is born in family. It is in the family that he learns language, the behavioural patterns and social norms in his childhood. Family is a universal group exists in tribal, rural and urban communities and among the followers of all religions and cultures.

Inspite of universal nature of family one can see vast differences in its structure. In tribal and agrarian societies, people of several generation live together and have large and joint families. In industrial society the family is limited to husband, wife and their children. This is called nuclear family by sociologists.

The reasons for emergence of nuclear family in urban society are industrialisation, occupational mobility, wage based livelihood, modern education and individualistic idealogy. The increasing industrialisation has played an important role in the system of nuclear family. The process of industralisation has transformed the method of production, migration, social mobility and psychological relationship. The modern familyis no more the unit of production in urban societies but in rural and tribal societies such a role of family is still dominating.

The farmer cultivates the land and produces food grain with the help of family members and the blacksmith, the goldsmith and potter produce their goods at home also. But in the industrial system the industrialists own the industries. The workers work in the industry do not share the ownership. The residence and place of work is also not the same. The husband, wife and children also work in this system. The place of work, working hours etc. are in their control. As a result the physical proximity of the family members diminished.

At the same time, various institutions and professional groups like the state, school, teacher, hospital, doctor etc. have taken today over many functions of family with the development of a welfare state, as the state has accepted the responsibility of education, healthcare of old, children, pregnant women, handicapped people to a great extent. The multiple influences in urban society have strengthened the individualistic ideology in husband and wife. As a result the traditional familial solidarity and role in industrial societies have changed rapidly.

Talcott Parson opines that in modern industrial society, isolated nuclear family has emerged as a typical characteristic. It is structurally isolated because it does not have a link with the wider kick-up organisation. Structural differentiation begins from here and new institutions have evolved specialising in fewer functions. Thus, family does not perform a wider range of function as it previously did.

He argues that there is a functional relationship between isolated nuclear family and the economic system in industrial society. Industrial economy demands geographical mobility and then nuclear family has adopted itself as well. In industrial requirement, achievement pattern is more important than the prescribed one.

Thus, the nuclear family is the best form of family for a society based on achieved status i.e. industrial society.

Answer : Family is one of the important agencies of socialization. In the family a child learns the expected behaviours, social values, norms of society and various customs, mores and folkways. They also learn religious belief political and economic values of a particular kind. When a child become adult or make appearance into the society, they are guided by the values imported in the family. For example, if a child is violent against his father or mother in the family, there is a likelihood that he may be violent against authority in social life which is disrupting to social control. Thus a child or and adult is taught by the elderly family members how to behave in society.

According to Talcoff Parsons primary socialization and stabilization of adult personality are the two important functions of family. David Cooper in his book "The Death of the Family" has argued that the parents exercise undue pressures through releasing their frustration on the children and the child become scapegoat. Sometimes the potential of the children is crushed in the family. These emotionally disturbed children become deviant or criminal in social life. The family also determines the nature of education, peer group and play group of the children. The psychologists have shown that a person is what he becomes in the family. In a bad family, child learns bad habit whereas in a good family he acquires good habits. An important cause of juvenile deliquency is the bad family environment. At the time of mate choice the parents also try to find out the family history of the boy and girl in order to known their good and bad points. The relationship between parents and child is one of constraints. The parents are older then he and have the power to command obedience. In case the child does not follow the rules, he may be coerced. Thus, like the foundation of a building, family is the basic unit of social control and it exercises control throughout life.

Answer : Family and marriage are the two important aspects of the same coin. Westermark in his book, “History of Human Marriage” remarked, “Marriage is rooted in family rather than family in marriage”. The entire structures of family are based on the two types of bonds or relationship; consaguineous, (blood relations) and affinal (marriage relations). When we argue about the structure of family and marriage, it refers to the pattern of relationship between husband and wife and the nature of residence, size, authority, procreation, nature of marriage, kinship ties property etc.

Traditionally family is the basic unit of society and the relationship of husband and wife in the family is strongly bounded by the kinship ties. The family member, especially husband and wife are emotionally hot professionally bounded. The joint household are the preferred choice where more than two or three generation use to live together and share common kitchen and roof. The elderly members of the family especially male, control the entire authority and ensure basic facilitation to all according to one’s needs and requirement. The behaviours of individual in the society is controlled by kinship bond and it is one of the important means of informal social control in society. Generally the goal of the marriage is the establishment of the family. In the patriarchal family. There are certain rules of inheritance in which only the male members have the rights of inheritance.

As far as change in the structure of family and marriage in modern industrial capitalist society is concerned, it is rapidly changing now. According to Durkheim, this society is characterised by organic solidority; that is, high degree of individualism, weak collective conscience, high degree of social mobility, loose kinship ties, weak religious constraints are operative in the society. The professional and individualistic attitudes have largely disorganised the institutions of family and marriage in society. According to Talcott Person’s, “The isolated nuclear family is a typical family form in modern industrial society’’. He aruges that it is structurally isolated because it does not form an integral part of a wider system of kinship relationship.

He further argued that the isolated nuclear family is the best form of family structure of the society based on achieved stakes and the universalistic values, that is value universally applied to all members of the society. According to MacIver and Page more and more, as the development on application of new technique advanced, then stripped the family of its economic function and in so doing profoundly affected the whole character and the social significance of the family. They increasingly took both the work and cookers out of home. Above all, they drew even larger number of women into workforce and factories and offices. They broke down the age-old doctrine-”man for the field and women for the hearth”. They gave wives and daughter, same earning power independent of the jurisdiction of husband and fathers.

For the first time in modern history, the work of women began to be specialised like that of a man, instead of being confined to the task of household. The family changed from a production to a consumption unit. As a result of these changes the institution of marriage has changed. The rate of divorce and marital breakdown is very high in this society. The emotional bond of the couple are breaking down and professional relation are gradually gaining currency. One of the reasons of divorce is highly individualistic life style and professional attitudes of the husband and wife to one another.

William J Goode, in ‘World Revolution and Family’ argues that the high rate of geographical mobility in the industrial society decreases the frequency of intimacy and contact among the members of kin network.

The modern technical and professional education and occupational mobility centres in the big town and cities are providing new job opportunities to both male and female in the family.

This has lessened the traditional patriarchal authority of elderly members. The men and women of educated background are more autonomous in decision making. Their kinship ties are “loose knit” because they are work-centered and home centered.

Since the working women is more independent in terms of economy, they enjoy more independent personality and thought. This has resulted in more or less weak conjugal bonds. The individualised ramontic love culminating in marriage is another feature of modern education. The virulocal or urilocal type of residential pattern is preferred.

Goode applies the concept of role-bargaining in his concept of family which means individual attempts to attain best possible bargaining in the relationship with others. He also found that the extended family pattern is most likely to occur in upper class.

Michael Young and Willmont have discussed the four stages of family life. The second stage family began with the industrial revolution and reached its peck in the twentieth century. In this stage a family ceased to be a unit of production, the individual members are employed as a wage earner. At this stage the family is headed by a female. In the traditional family, the authority is patriarchal and the descent is traced through the patrilineal line. The residence pattern is generally patrilocal.

Now with the an emergence of industry, neolocal residence and equal share in the family property both by male and female is taking place. Commenting on the functional side of family, Vogel and Bell argued that often the tension and hostility of unresolved conflict between parents are projected on the child. The child is thus used as an emotional scape goat by the parents to relieve their tension.

David Cooper has also supported the view in his “Death of Family”. He maintains that child is destroyed by the family since he is primarly thought how to submit to society for the sake of surivival. On the other hand focussing on conjugal relationship, Ian Ashley writes that the emotional support provided by the wife is a safety-value for frustration produced in the husband by working in the capitalist system. In the modern industrial capitalist society, David Cooper remarked, “Family is an ideological conditioning device in an exploitative society”.

Finally, it can be reasonably concluded that both the family and marriage are rapidly changing at structural and functional level in the modern industrial capitalist society. The major factors of these change are industrialization, urbanisation, modern education, legislation, democratisation etc.

Answer : Many sociologists begin from the assumption that human behaviour is largely directed and determined by culture. In fact, norms, values and roles are culturally determined and socially transmitted. From this perspective, gender roles are a product of culture rather than biology. In modern society, gender roles are taking a different shape because of increase of women’s participation in the labour force. Now a days, womens are free to work in various type of occupations. This tendency affects the traditional structure of family i.e. joint to nuclear family. Before that women were working in their own household work i.e. child-bearing, food-making and to care of their's elder and children. But now the situation has changed and it leads to development of individualism to the people. It is because in present time everybody wants to gain more and more in terms of everything. It is the most important-economic and social transformation of the twenty first century.

In fact, women are not only concentrated on the role of mother, wife or daughter but also to outside the household. But one thing which affects in the larger scale that women are becoming more self-reliant and productive in economic sense. It creates a problem in society that both (parents) do not have time for their family that leads to the breakdown family structure. Various study show that this change in gender role has increased the frequency of divorce as well. In short, gender roles have greater impact not only on the family structure but also other aspects such as economic, cultural, political and educational as well.

Answer : Family is a basic and universal unit of human society. It performs functions that are necessary for the continuity, integration and development of social life. In most traditional societies family has been the unit of social, cultural, religious, economic and political activities and organizations. In modern industrial societies, the family performs primarily the function of reproduction, socialization and provision of emotional satisfaction.

Sociologists talk about family in two senses. It refers (i) to an empirical entity of a specific type, and (ii) to an analytical concept. The empirical type of family varies from community to community and region to region. As an analytical concept, family is a universal institution. It refers to groups composed of parents and children.

A lineage consists of all descendents in one line of a particular person through a determinate number of generations . Where the living members constitute a recognized social group it may be called a lineage group, but sometimes the lineage consists of both the living and the dead. A lineage consisting of all descendants through males of a single ancestor is called a patri-lineage or an agnatic lineage; one consisting of all descendants through females is known as a matri-lineage.

Lineages usually have exclusive common ritual observances, perhaps totemic in nature, and they are usually exogamous. They may have common property rights or offices of a priestly or royal character. A lineage is usually three generations in number, but may be many more, although seldom more than five.

The relationship between rules of descent and inheritance of property is very much related to kinship principle. The rites of descent include unilateral descent, bilateral or biennial kin group and double descent.

1. Unilateral Descent: If the kinship line is traced through one line only it is called unilateral descent. It may take two forms patrilineal (from fathers’ side) or matrilineal (through mothers’ side) descent.

2. Bilateral or Biennial group: This consists of persons who are related to ego through both matrilineal and patrilineal lines.

3. Double Unilineal descent: In this descent matrilineal life is utilized for some purpose and patrilineal for others. Yako of Nigeria is good example of this descent.

Rules of inheritance include primogeniture and ultimongeniture. When the eldest son/daughter inherits the position from his father it is called primongeniture, while reverse is the case in ultimogeniture. When the youngest son/daughter inherits the position from father, it is called ultimongeniture. In Indian society, the rules of inheritance follows in the following points:

I. Patrilineal Hindus were and are still governed by two main schools of law in the matter of succession and inheritance namely Mitaksara and Dayabhaga school which were founded by Vijanasvara and Jimutvahana respectively. Dayabhaga school is followed mainly in Assam and Bengal. Under the Mitaksara a son has a vested interest in his father’s ancestral property from the moment of his birth. The other cannot alienate any part of the ancestral property to the detriment of a minor’s interest. Under the Dayabhaga system, however, the father is the absolute owner of his share and presence of a minor does not constitute a bar of alienation.

II. Among the Khasis, office of the priestess of the matrilineage goes to the youngest daughter i.e. ultimogeniture.

Answer : This is the prohibition of or avoidance of sexual relations with near kin usually primary relatives e.g., parents, sibling, children etc. The sociologists differs considerably in their definition of what constitutes 'incest' and hence which sexual relations are in fact 'taboo'. Sometimes, it is confined to members of the nuclear family. Sometimes, it is simply a synonym for forbidden sexual relation with any kin. Sometimes, the incest taboo is equated with prohibition on marriage e.g. exogamic prohibition, although these do not necessarily coincide. Most authority agree that some form of taboo on sexual relation with some near kin, and particularly primary relatives, is vertually universal, although there are significant exceptions.

The classical psycho analytic treatment can be found in Sigmund Freud's "Totem and Taboo" (1917) and in his other writings. One of the important biological function of incest taboo is to maintain the purity of blood and a healthy human mind. According to sociological point of view, in the kinship structure, the importance of incest taboo is very much because to whom one should get married or not is the crucial aspect of the kinship system. From simple to complex society, this sytem is strictly followed.

Answer : The very term “structure of family” refers to the pattern of relationship between husband and wife and the nature of residence, size, authority, procreation, marriage, kinship, property, etc. Whenever change occurs in this pattern of relationship and nature of the above mentioned areas, we call it “structural change” in the family.

The earlier structure of family was characterised by sexual promiscuity, patriarchy, group-living, polygamy, joint property, strong kinship-ties, etc. Since the society has made all round changes and development in the various spheres, the structure of family, to a great extent, has also changed to make pace with them. Therefore, the modern family is characterised by nuclear household, individualism, neolocal residence, monogamy, loose kinship-ties, division of labour etc. The social thinkers have sought some of the leading factors which have brought tremendous changes in the structure of family in the modern society. These are as follows:

(1) Industrialization : It is one of the major factors of the structural change in the family in the modern society. According to Talcott Parsons “isolated nuclear family” is a typical family form in the modern industrial society. He argues that it is “structurally isolated” because it does not form an integral part of a wider system of kinship relationship. He further argues that the isolated nuclear family is the best form of family structure of the society based on ‘achieved status’ and the ‘universalistic values’, that is values that are universally applied to all members of society. According to MacIver and page more and more, as the development on application of new technique advanced, they stripped the family of its economic function and in so doing profoundly affected the whole character and the social significance of the family. They increasingly took both the work and the workers out of home. Above all, they drew even larger number of women into workshops and factories and offices. They broke down the age-old doctrine—“man for the field and woman for the hearth”. They gave wives and daughters, same earning power independent of the jurisdiction of husbands and fathers. For the first time in the modern history, the work of woman began to be specialised like that of a man instead of being confined to the task of house-hold. The family changed from a production to a consumption unit. On the other hand, MacIver and page have also argued that the industrial discovery has substituted the home-made commodities and applied labour-saving devices with the home. The net consequences was the gradual reduction of the amount of energy and time involved in the economic tasks of the family in the business of home keeping.

In “World Revolution and Family” William J. Goode, argues that the high rate of geographical mobility in the industrial society decreases the ‘frequency and intimacy of contact among members of kin network’.

(2) Urbanisation : It is another vital factor which has brought structural change in the institution of family in the modern society. According to the latest data, the urban population of the developed and industrialised countries is rapidly increasing. As a result of it, kinship relationship has been negatively affected. The traditional joint family has been replaced by the “isolated nuclear family”. Monogamy and small family are preferred because of housing problem in the urban areas. Goode finds that the extended family pattern is most likely to occur in the upper classes.

(3) Occupation Mobility : Goode has pointed out that high rate of occupational and geographical mobility has decreased the frequency of interaction and contact among the members of kin network. Occupational mobility generally takes place from the rural to urban areas where nuclear family is the preferred choice. The authority is dominated by the man but woman enjoys complete freedom and occupational choice. The main economic activities are centred around the service sector.

(4) Modern Education : The modern technical and professional educational centres in the big towns and cities are providing new job opportunity to both males and females in the family. This has lessened the traditional patriarchal authority of the elderly members. The men and women of educated background are more autonomous in decision making. Their kinship ties are “loose knit” because they are work-centred and home-centred. Since the working woman is more independent in terms of economy, they enjoy more independent personality or thought. This has resulted in more or less weak conjugal-bonds. The individualised romantic love culminating in marriage is another feature of the modern education. The virilocal or urilocal type of the residential pattern is preferred.

(5) The Modern Democratic Political System : It has replaced the traditional authoritarian power structure dominated, particularly, by the man. The feudal patriarchal system has declined. The organic solidarity, individualism, division of labour, specialisation, autonomy etc. in the entire social system have taken due place due to the establishment of this kind of political set up. The traditional value system where religion and customs were dominant have been replaced by modern rational-legal values. Now the neolocal residential pattern is followed by the nucleated family. MacIver and Page have referred to this factor as a crucial one in changing the structure of family in modern society.

Answer : Generally, the nuclear family consists of husband, wife and their unmarried children. Sometimes the unmarried brother, widowed mother, or unmarried sister of the couple are also included in it. The nuclear family emerges with the disintegration of the joint family. This disintegration is generally caused by individualism and problems in the family. The sociological knowledge and data reveals that nuclear family is rapidly emerging around the world. In India also, the rate of nuclearization of the tradition family system is growing rapidly. One of the major causes of it is the industrialization. It requires expert technicians and professionals in the industry. Industrialisation increases the pace of urbanization because the industrial workers and technicians have to live around the industrial set up. Firstly the work culture and environment with the industry and organisation expect of a person a particular type of behaviour which sometimes clashes with the joint family norms. Thus, the concerned person does adjust in the family. Secondly, industry requires the settlement of the workers and technicians within the periphery of urban areas. There is the problem of overcrowding in the joint family. It brings dysfunction in the socialization, the migration from rural to urban area, particularly where the industrial set up is very rapid. Here, they have to face the problem of housing, slums, economic insecurity etc. It is not possible for a migrant to live with his/her joint family and cover the needs of all members alone. Here nuclear household is preferably good. There is a wide network of financial institutions like banking organisations and developed political institution have developed as a result of industrial development. Specialisation, high division of labour, modern educational and cultural institutions are the features of the industrial society. The nuclear family supply them adequate service by socializing the members according to the prerequisite of the institutions. In the joint family, more often, the skills are killed and child becomes the scapegoat. The modern social values and education which are generated by the industrial culture are firsty adopted by the nuclear family in the urban areas. The joint family is traditional and very strict against the change in the family's values. There is the problem of intergenerational gap. The husband and wife work together; one does industrial work while the other, wife, works in the organisation. The culture of working women is prevalent in the industrially developed countries, the notion of which is chiefly found in the nuclear household structure.

The structure and size of the nuclear family varies in different countries. In America, Talcott Parsons argues that the “isolated nuclear family” is mostly prevalent. It is structurally isolated because the members are unable to maintain the kinship ties and social relationship. They are chiefly associated with their professions which fulfill all of their individual needs. It consists of husband, wife and unmarried children.

There is no uniformality in the structure of joint family in all the industrial and developed society. But, the husband, wife and their unmarried children constitute the basic type of nuclear family. Sometimes, a widowed wife with her married or unmarried children, sometime two brothers or sisters jointly live with their children. It is called extended nuclear family. It may be of another type where husband and wife live along with either of the parents. The preference is given to the neolocal type residence. The authority in joint family is mostly dominated by the male. It may be female dominated also. The conjugal bonds are very strong in this family. Sometimes, the conflict between the husband and wife results in divorce or separation of the spouses. According to Murdock, a significant proportion of the Black families in the island of West Indies, part of central America such as New Guyana and the USA do not include male adult. The family unit often consists of a woman and her dependent children, sometimes in addition of her mother.

Conclusion: Though nuclear family provides adequate support to the modern industrial society, the relationship within the family or conjugal bonds is negatively affected. The high rate of divorce may be traced among them. The modern club, pizza and jeans culture adopted by the nuclear household, sometimes, result in conflict or strain of roles between husband and wife. Since they no longer live under the control of any supreme family authority, the essential values and disciplines are lost in them. Without social and family constraints, liberty and independence may be dysfunctional. The nuclear family is widely found in the industrial countries of the world. The coming of post industrial society is expected to bring further change in the structure and function of the nuclear family.

Answer : Conviction, simply refers to convince or promote people for doing something or not doing others. Whereas coercion means use of force to achieve a desired goal. According to Gillin and Gillin “Social Control is that system of measures, suggestions, persuasion, restraints and coercion by whatever means including physical force by which a society brings into conformity its members”. Kimball Young defines social control as “the use of coercion, force, restraints, suggestion or persuasion of one group over another or of a group over its members or of a person over the others to enforce the prescribed rules of the game. These rules may be set down by members themselves, as in a professional code of ethics, or they may be those laid down by a larger, more inclusive group for the regulation of other smaller groups".

Though coercion is one of the monitoring devices of social control, it is rather less significant in ensuring the desired goal of establishing order in society. Coercion may be physical or non-violent. It is the ultimate means of social control when other means fail. Physical coercion may take the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalties. Physical coercion, is without doubt, the lowest form of social control. Societies would least desire to use it. It may have immediate effect upon the offender but it does not have an enduring effect. If a society has to depend on external force, it shows its weakness rather than strength in social control. Society's best protection lies in the development of fit citizens.

Non-violent coercion refers to the strike, boycott and no-cooperation. A person who threatens to withdraw his support from a friend if he does not give up smoking, is using non-violent coercion to change his action. The student may go on strike to force the principal to ensure them adequate library facilities. Boycott is the withholding of social and economic intercourse with others to express disapproval and to force acceptance of demands. A student who teases the girls may be socially boycotted by the other students of the college. Non-cooperation is the refusal to cooperate. The teachers may refuse to cooperate with the principal because for his insulting behaviour. Non-violent coercion can be a successful way of effecting social control. Mahatma Gandhi used it to force British government to grants political independence to India.

It is the conviction through which the anti-social personality may be corrected and the deviant individual may be moulded as a normal person of the society. The family, peer group, education, socialization etc. convince a man to follow the ideals or values of the society. The lessons regarding it are taught by the elderly members of the society. For example, corruption is one of the problems of present society. If the takers of bribe are sent to jail or hanged, it exerts negative influence on the society. Therefore, the bribe takers should be condemned and be imparted honest values and ideas. This is the job of conviction.

Ideology is considered as the fundamental social control. It is a set of beliefs, values, norms, policies, initiatiatives etc. which is destined to ensure the all round social control in the society. The ideology, in the present day democratic society, is chiefly formulated by the government. Government sets the goals of economic and social development. Norms, organisations and institutions are formed as a means to achieve the goal. The members of society are being made aware of these organisational and institutional norms through education and media. People are expected to respect these norms. For example, there is the communist government in China, Germany and West Bengal. The people are expected to regard the basic ethos of the communist ideology given by Marx. Society imposes several constraints on the behaviour which are against this ideology. Similarly, in the democratic countries, the basic principles of democracy such as adult universal franchise, secularism, elected government etc. are strictly followed by the people.

Thus the life of the people, to a great extent, is guided by the ideological principle of the society. Even a lay man of the society pays respect to national flag, Constitution and government. Thus, ideology and social control show mutual correlation. People are controlled and made disciplined according to the ideological norms and values.

Conclusion: In the process of social control, conviction works as a backbone on which other means such as coercion depends. Coercion has very limited role to play in controlling and monitoring the individuals and groups in the society. Conviction plays its roles in the same ways as teachers and family members socialize the children. Conviction plays harmonising and functional roles, while the coercion may result in disintegration and violence in the society. Secondly, ideology is considered conducive for the social control, but mere ideology is not sufficient to ensure it till the people are being made conscious. Consciousness among people brings automatic social control which may be evoked, chiefly, through imparting education among them. Whatever may happen, the conviction, coercion and ideology are closely related to the process of social control which have been jointly playing remarkable roles in the establishment of law and order in the society.

Answer : The word 'education' has been derived from the Latin root 'educare' which means to bring up and is connected with the verb 'educare' which means to bring forth. Plato held that the aim of education was to develop in the body and in the soul of the pupils all the perfection and all the beauty of which they are capable. According to Aristotle, to educate means to develop men's faculties, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, beauty and goodness. According to F.J. Brown and J.S. Roucek, education is the sum total of the experience, which moulds the attitudes and determine the conduct of both the child and the adult. Thus, in its broadest sense education may be defined as the process whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another and whereby the child learns the rules of social behaviour.

Social control refers to the coordination, growth, development, preservance of institutional and cultural values and overall well being of the society. Society imposes some constraints on individual liberty with customs and codified laws. On the other hand social change refers to the change in the values system and structural arrangement of the society. There are several factors such as customs, laws, value etc. which are directly or indirectly related to the social control and social change in the society. Education is one of the very important factor of the social control and social change in the society.

According to Arnold, the main objectives of education are the socialization, transmission of cultural heritage, reformation of attitudes, occupational placement, instillation of the sense of competition etc., which are indirectly associated with the social control and social change in the society. Firstly, socialization instills the qualities of honesty, fair play, consideration of others and right and wrong. The parents who have lost control at their own adolescents, now expect the class room to make for any deficiencies in the home training of manners and morals. Mounting pressure is laid on the school to perform the task of socialization which once was the function of the family. In addition to socialize the young, the school also devotes much of the time and energy to the themes of cooperation, good citizenship and doing one's duty. The patriotic sentiments are instilled in the students. All these thing are prerequisite of social control and social change.

Secondly, education transmits the cultural heritage from one generation to the other. By cultural heritage, we mean the knowledge of the past, its arts, literature, philosophy, religion, music etc. Through historical text book and indirectly through celebration of patriotic holidays, the child is acquainted with his cultural heritage. In the process of social change and social control, these inheritance of knowledge is crucial.

Thirdly, education reforms the wrong attitude of the children. Within the family and group, the child often comes to absorb a host of attitudes, beliefs, loyalties and prejudices. To reform these belief and prejudices is the function of education. Though the school cannot do much in this respect as the attendance of the child in the school is intermittent, yet it should continue its efforts for the attitude formation. The social control and change require the objective frame of attitude, especially positive in the desired goal of the society.

Fourthly, education prepares the adolescent for earning a livelihood. Education enables him to do productive task and earn enough for himself and his family. It should make the young person, a citizen who may ensure order and stability through his natural and acquired capacities. The youth must be enabled to play a productive role in the society. Thus, providing employment to the youth may reduce the rate of crime and deviation from the society and, on the other hand, it also increases the production, growth and development which ensure change in the society.

Fifthly, education instills the sense of competition among the people. For each subject studie, each child is compared with his companions by percentage of marks or division. The teacher praises those who do well and frawn upon those who do not do well. The school not only ranks all those within its walls but also shifts its raw material passing some and rejecting others on the basis of intelligence and diligence. The competitive attitudes are essential for social change.

Conclusion: Though education is one of the crucial factors of social change and development, the dysfunction of educational system leads to several problems in the society. The traditional methods of teaching and values to teach do not suit the modern society. At present, we think about a global village or a post-modern society. This age is considered as the age of information technology. The traditional educational system chiefly promotes the humanitarian values. The professional and technical education are the needs today. The influence of education in the field of social control is gradually losing because of extreme individualism, division of labour, specialization, competition etc. The family and community have to play responsible roles to create a national character within the family and community. The revitalization and renovation of the education with some degree of continuity are essential. In spite of all these, whether the education may be traditional or modern, it is still playing vital roles in the process of social change and social control.

Answer : In general the word "Custom" refers to the practices that have been often repeated by a multitude of generations, practice that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed by the past. According to Bogardus, "Custom and traditions are group-accepted technique of control that have become well established, that are taken for granted and that are passed along from generation to generation. Anderson and Parker write". The uniformly approved way of acting we follow are customs, transmitted from generation to generation by tradition and usually made effective by social approval.” Custom is a broad term embracing all the folkways and mores. Custom is used as a synonym of habit. Habit is a personal phenomena while custom is a social phenomena. Custom is formed on the basis of habit gaining the sanction and influence and therefore the social significance which is peculiar to it. Customs are social habits which through repetition become the basis of an order of social behaviour.

Custom is one of the important mechanisms of social control in the primitive and modem industrial societies. Customs are long established habits and usages of the people. They are those folkways and mores which have persisted for a long time and have passed down from one generation to other. This arises spontaneously and gradually. There is no constituted authority to declare them, to apply them or to safeguard them. They are accepted by society. They are followed because they have been followed by the past. The importance of customs as a means of social control cannot be minimised. They are so powerful that no one can escape from range. They regulate social life to a great extent. They bind men together. They control the purely selfish impulses. They compel the individual to conform to the accepted standards. They are held so sacred that any violation of them is regarded not only as crime but also as a sacrilege. In primitive societies customs were powerful means of social control but in modern times their force has loosened.

In the primitive society especially tribal and village community, social customs play very significant roles in the social, economic, political and religious aspects of their life. The rules and practices of marriage, descent, kinship network, mutual cooperation and exchanges etc. are bound to follow the customary laws or practices. One cannot deliberately violate these practices. These customs consist of the values and morals of the societies. This is an uncodified law. In the process of economic production, distribution and exchange such as Kula and Potlach, the customs are followed. Those who violate these norms are condemned and punished by the community. The village and tribal political organisations such as village panchayat and tribal chiefs are expected to follow the values and practices of the society. They are the safeguarder of the customs. Religion and magic are the crucial aspects of tribal living. The religious worship & ritual, bear the customs of society and cannot violate the laws of totem, a sacred object. According to Emile Durkheim the tribal or primitive society is characterized by the mechanical solidarity. They are homogenous and governed by conventional laws which are not codified. The custom imposes several constraints on the behaviour of the individual. It also provides liberation. The collective consciences of the society which are embedded with customary values are very strong. The severe punishment is given to the violators.

The socialization of the men is done through the customs of family, society and peer groups. Respect to elders, totem, parents and sexual and kinship taboos are strictly taught to the children by their elderly members.

Though unlike primitive society, customs have lost its importance in the modern industrial capitalist society, it is still directly or indirectly affecting the life of the people. The modern judicial system and the codified laws have been constituted according to the customary practices of the people. The legislative body, while make a framework of laws or initiatives is always guided by the customs. The modern industrial society is chiefly characterised by the rational and logical values, scientific temperament, industry and technology, computer, internet etc. The media and communication revolution have brought the people of the world on a single platform. People think in terms of how and what of a question. In spite of all these the Mahakumbha and other religious rituals and practices are always accepted with great enthusiasm. The traditional belief system and values are accepted without any rational interpretation.

Durkheim has referred that the modern industrial society is characterized by the organic solidarity. The collective conscience of society is relatively weak. The specialization, individualism, modern education, democratic political system etc. have reduced the importance of customs. But customary norms and values are so strong that it has been enshrined in the basic instinct of the individual. This is the reason why a multinational company, when establishing its industrial unit in India or anywhere in the world, offers prayers and rituals to the God, sprinkle Gangajal and chant mantras. The children learn these customs through socialization.

Conclusion : The above discussion suggests that customs play a very coordinating and monitoring role in the primitive societies, whereas in the modern industrial society its importance and functions have decreased. But, indirectly it is still affecting the lives of the people. It is the prominent source of Indian constitution, penal code and other, social, economic and political legislation. It is the tradition of the society and tradition cannot be completely eliminated from our life. The life of tribal and village people are still, to a great extent, guided and charged by the customary practices.

Answer : The very term "Sex roles" refers to the different ways of behaving of men and women which are supposed to act according to the different tasks assigned to them differently. In most of the advanced industrial societies, women are expected to do household work, while the men spend their lives in a varieties of career outside the home and their work is often better paid, and of higher status than that of women. Several biological and psychological theories emphasize that the women are more suitable for nurturing and house work, and men, by temperament are aggressive and instrumental. According to functionalist perspective, the sex roles are complementary and male and the female division of labour increases the stability of the family. In the modern industrial societies women are participating with their male counterparts in different spheres of life. This has brought both the structural and functional changes in the family. The pattern of conjugal bond, residence of the family, kinship ties and authority structure have largely changed. At the functional level, the changing sex-roles, has brought tremendous change in the socialization process of the family members, emotional support and economic assistance to them. Negatively, is has resulted in high rate of divorce, family tension, conjugal conflict, scapegoat of the children etc. The positive aspect of it is that the working women enjoy more independent personality and economic independence

Answer : The industrialization which is closely associated with urbanization has brought remarkable change in the traditional family and kinship organisation. The pattern of relationship, authority, residence, marriage etc. have been affected by it. The kinship system which performs various social and individual function is gradually being replaced. The significance of kinship is too much in bringing coherence and harmony in the society.

The family system, at its structural and functional level, is gradually changing due to massive industrialization and the coming of the information technology. The mutual cooperation and intimacy among the members of the family are being replaced by the individualism and conflict. Industry and communication have promoted the desires for materialistic living and mechanistic life style. The status and prestige, in the industrial society is determined by the individual accumulation of wealth and a technical skill. The members of the family aspire for getting these thing, even by disintegrating the relationship. The extended and joint family are rapidly changing into the nuclear or conjugal family. In the choice of marriage in the family, the elderly members play prominent roles. Now the individual autonomy and love marriage are the basic features. William J. Goode in his "World Revolution and Family" has studied the relationship between the family and industrialization. He argues that the move to nuclear family has been more rapid than could be supposed or predicted from the degree of industrialization alone. Goode argues that high level of social and geographical mobility within the industrial society decrease the contact among the members of kin groups. Goode applies the concept of role bargaining in his concept of family which means individual attempts to attain best possible bargaining in the relationship with others. He also found that the extended family pattern is most likely to occur in the upper class. Michael Young and Peter Willmontt have discussed the four stages of family life. The second stage family began with the industrial revolution and reached its peak in the twentieth century. In this stage a family ceased to be a unit of production, the individual members are employed as a wage earner. As this stage the family is headed by a female.

In the traditional family, the authority is patriarchal and descent is traced through the patrilineal line. The residence pattern is generally patrilocal. Now with the emergence of industry, neolocal residence and the equal share in the family property both by male and female is taking place.

Fletcher in his “Family and Marriage and Britain” argues that not only the family retained its function but these functions have increased in detail and importance. He says that the family still maintains vital economic function as a unit of consumption. One of the important roles of the family have been the rearing of children and their socialization. The role of family is gradually decreasing in the urban areas where the husband and wife are doing job outside the family. The child rearing and socialization are done by the family servant and school. In the lower income group, where both the spouses uses to go to factory, their children may be deviant or delinquent for lack of proper control.

All of these changes in the family have to a great extent, changed the kinship relationship. The kinship system prescribes marriage rules, moral values and helps in the integration of the social system. Individual is so bounded by it that he cannot violate the affinal and consanguinal ties easily. But industrialisation has been changing its structure and function. Now members of kin group are bound by the organisational and professional morals. The informal relationship and contract are changing into the formality. Intimacy among the kin group has been reduced as a consequence. But the kinship organisation is still playing the major role of emotional support and moral values to the kin groups. Sometimes, in the industrial and organisational set up, two or more kin members work together which result in good industrial output and job satisfaction. The Howthorne and Bank wiring group case study suggest that some degree of informality are essential for the good output. The conflicting kinship ties result in the tension and frustration. Only a healthy social being may prove good for the industry and organization. This is possible by maintaining a sound affinal and consanguineous kinship relationship. The traditional exchange system within the kin group is gradually replaced by the modern gift culture which is harmful for coordination of the society and individual. Thus maintaining a healthy kinship tie is favourable for both the industry and society as a whole.