Sociology As Science

Answer : The comparative or anthropological method in Sociology involves comparison of various kinds of groups of people in order to find out the differences as well as similarities in their ways of life and thus to find out clues to man's social behaviour. Thus, this method is very favourable to sociologist to ascertain relations and interrelation between different aspect of social life. The another reason for adoption of this method in Sociology is that the experimental method and its various stages such as observation, classification, hypotheses etc. cannot be applied for the social investigation.

This method has been used by many sociologists to find out what element in social life are functionally co-related. Taylor used this method in the study of institutions connected with the family of the primitive people and was able to show that the practice of mother in-law avoidance is co-related with the custom of matrilocal residence. Similarly, Weber also finds direct relation between the practical ethics of community and character of its economic system.

But the application of this method is not as simple as it appears. The first difficulty in the application of this method is that social units have different meaning in different countries. For example, the institution of marriage has different meaning for the people of India and for Westerners.

Answer : Objectivity is one of the characteristic features of both the natural and social science research methodology. The natural sciences is considered more scientific in approach than the social science because they make high degree of objective studies. On the other hand social sciences are comparatively less objective because of the nature of subject matter. In sociology, the significance of objectivity is of the worth importance because the founding fathers have described it as a scientific discipline. It is exaggerating to call it a scientific subject without attaining some level of objectivity in it. There are various methods of studying sociological as well as social problems. These are participant observation, interview, sampling, survey etc.; the main purpose of which is to get objective knowledges of the concerned problems or issues. Thus it can be said that these methods adopt objective way to get objective facts. For example, a sociologist, when tries to study the number of unemployed youth in a particular country, he works on it in an objective manner to get the exact number. Otherwise, for this matter, a layman makes approximation. Thus, it is apt to adopt more objective approach to make the discipline more scientific.

Answer : Sociology as a science of society has been propounded and discussed by positivistic school of thought.

It starts with the beginning of the study of Sociology itself, and more precisely by Auguste Comte. Comte’s chief work “Positive Philosophy” published in six volumes during 1830-1842 paved the way for establishing sociology as a science of society. He formulated three stages through which human knowledge develops viz. the theological, the metaphysical and the positive or empirical. Comte maintained that only when this last stage has been reached, is real science possible.

In the positive stage, objective observation is substituted for speculation and there is a concentration upon the discovery of casual relationships rather than first causes.Comte said sociology would use empirical methods to discover basic laws of society which would benefit mankind by playing a major part in the improvement of the human condition. Social phenomena, like physical phenomena, can be studied objectively by employing the positive method.

In the first stage, the theological, everything is explained and understood through the supernatural. The family is the proto-typical social unit and political dominance is held by priests and military men. In the second stage, the metaphysical, abstract forces are assumed to be the source of explanation and understanding. The state replaces the family as a prototypical social unit and as in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, political dominance is held by churchmen and lawyers.

In the third and highest stage, the mind has given up the vain search after absolute notions, the origin and destination of the universe, the causes of phenomena and applies itself of the study of their laws.

In this scientific phase, the laws of the universe are studied through observation, experimentation and comparison. The whole human race replaces the state as the operative social unit and the political dominance held by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides.

Answer : Science is a body of systematised knowledge which is based on the sensory observation and empirical data. The chief characteristic of science are: (i) The possibility of concise, consistent and concrete formulation (ii) Capacity to form generalistaion and make predictions and (iii) The possibility of verification of data. The various ways used in scientific method are observation, recording, classification, hypothesis, verification and prediction.

The early sociologists conceived Sociology as a positive science. For example, influenced by biology, August comte viewed society as an organism like entity; a unified whole made up of the interconnected parts. He advocated the method of positive science to be used for the study of social phenomena. Similarly, Spencer, another 19th century sociologist had a positivistic conception of Sociology.

Even Durkheim regarded Sociology as a positive science. According to him, social facts constitute Sociology. He defined social fact in such a way that they were amenable to sensory observation and exploratory generalisation above them could be made by using positive science method. Subsequenly Radcliffe Brown, Malinowski and Parsons continue to view sociology as a positive science and so did most of the Chicago school sociologists. Robert Bierstedt has, in his book "The Social Order" mentioned characteristic feature of nature of Sociology, which are : (i) Sociology is a social science not a natural science (ii) Sociology is a categorical or positive or not a normative science (iii) Sociology is pure or theoretical science and not an applied science (iv) Sociology is an abstract science not a concrete science (v) Sociology is a generalising not a particularising science. (vi) Sociology is both a rational and empirical science.

Answer : One of the important differences between Sociology and Social Anthropology is its subject matter. Sociology studies the interaction of individual and group, social institution of norms and values, culture etc. of the present society whereas Anthropology grew and built its knowledge from Archaeology, Physical Anthropology, Cultural History, Linguistics and study of life of the primitives man. Sociology grew out of the Philosophy of history, Political thought and social surveys. On the other hand, Social Anthropology has its origin in Physical Anthropology and ultimately in Biology. A social anthropologist generally lives in the community that they study in order to observe and record what they see. Their analysis is essentially qualitative and clinical. On the other hand, sociologists often rely on statistics and questionnaires and their analysis is often formal and quantitative. In spite of these major differences there are similarities between these two disciplines. Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by Anthropology. Sociology has borrowed cultural area, cultural traits, inter dependent traits, cultural lag and other conception from Social Anthropology on whose basis “Cultural Sociology” has developed. According to Hoebel, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense, one and the same”. A.L. Kroeber has called Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. Evan Pritchard consider Social Anthropology to be a branch of sociology. Thus, there are similarities, differences and mutual dependence between these two disciplines.

Answer : To make a critical interpretation of whether a social phenomena is scientifically studied or not, it seems reasonable to know the nature and characteristics of both the social phenomena and the science. According to L.F. Ward"Sociology is a science of society or social phenomena". The sum and substance of the various other definitions of Sociology is that it is the study of social relationship, social interaction and activities. It is the needs which compel a man to interact and take action to fulfil it. Whenever he tries to do so, he establishes a relationship with the other man, organisation, institution etc. For example, to fulfil his biological and emotional needs, the institution of marriage and family were created by man, the former validate the sex drive and gives them an organised and settled way of living, so does the latter also. Except these, as man has vivid needs, such as social, economic, political, religious, educational etc. he has created concerned institutions, and associations to fulfill his needs and dreams. Thus the development and growth of the society is embedded in the interaction process establishing relationship. The interaction process involves several processes which are cooperation, conflict, competion, assimilation, accommodation etc. During these process, the associative and disassaciative forces also operate. As has been remarked by MacIver & page, society consists of both the likeness and differences. Therefore, its various institutional arrangements and process consists of these prominent two features. Both, cooperation and conflict, likness and differences are essential for the development of society.

Secondly, the norms and values of the society are very important in deciding the customs, folkways, mores and legislation. The modern codified laws have its origin in the deep rooted customs and values of the society. It is the social values which determine the institutional arrangement of the society.

All these institutional arrgagements, systems and orders, and the mechanism of control and monitoring as it is existing is called social phenomena. The main task of the sociologists is to make studies of these existing social phenomena. It is not their concern to suggest "What ought to be"but as it is.

Now the question is whether the scientific study of the social phenomena, which has been characterized above is possible or not. To know the answer, it is essential to be aware of the nature and characteristic of science.

In a simple explanation of the science, it can be said that it is not a concept in itself, but a objective way of finding the facts. The conclusion reached by scientist after going through several processes such as experiementation, observation etc. may be verified again and again if the similar circumstances prevail. On the basis of the experimental studies and observation, they propound universal theory or law. Thus the Newton's law of motion, the Boyle’s and Charle's law can be still verified and tested. This is the essence of scientific method.

All the founding fathers of the Sociology such as August Comte (1798-1857) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Max weber (1861-1920) and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) assume that Sociology is the science of society or social phenomena: It make scientific analysis of the social phenomena by applying scientific principle or method.

August Comte who laid the foundation of Sociology believed that the society of human being must be studied in the same scientific manner as the world of nature. He said that the natural science methods can be applied to the study of society. His ideas of divison of human society or thought into the three distinct categories: theological, metaphysical and positive, and the hierarchy of sciences have really given us a positive clue to apply scientific method in the study of social phenomena. According to Comte, science also passes through three stages of thought chronologically and Sociology is the most distinct of all science in the hierarchy. He has applied the static and dynamic concept of the biology in the study of society.

Similarly, Herbert Spencer has described the scientific way to study social phenomena. He has compared social phenomena with the organism. Just as various parts of human beings function for the well being of the men as a whole in the same way different institutional set up and process work for keeping society alive. His evolutionary ideas are equally applicable to both the natural and social sciences.

Thirdly, Durkheitn's social fact, solidarity, division of labour etc. have been scientifically descrbed. He has described social fact as the existing reality of the society. Therefore, the reality may be scientifically proved and theory may be propounded regarding it.

Max weber has also attempted to give a causal explanation and scientific approach to his ideal type, and bureaucratic hierarchy.

On the basis of the above scientific explanation given to the study of social phenomena, it can be said that Sociology applies scientific methods to explain the social phenomena. But it is still unclear as to what level or the degree of objectivity and exactness are achieved by the sociologist. Some of the social phenomena such as demography and where statistics is concerned may be explained in a more objective way whereas the value judgement is relatively poor to be explained objectively. Thus, the controlled experimental studies of social values is not possible. Secondly, there is the universalisation problem of sociological principle. The nature and characteristic of social phenomena vary in different social groups. The norms and values of the agricultural, tribal, and industrial society are different at the same time. Thus, universal law cannot be propounded. It is considered as the characteristic feature of the science.

The sociological methods like participant observation, interview, quesnonnaire, sampling, social survey etc. give us a scientic explanation of the social phenomena. But like natural science it cannot be equally generalised and proved. Since the various social phenomena gradually change, and changing process is difficult to study objectively, a sociologist’s task is to ensure it in changing circumstances.

Thus we neither say, that we can study social phenomena in a more scientific way nor the sociological principle is absolutely unscientific, rather it makes scientific study of social phenomena.

Answer : A hypothesis, like a theory, is an idea. It is, however more specific than a theory, more concrete and more easily tested. It is hypothesis derived from the theory that is actually tested in scientific research. With the formulation of hypothesis, we give some sort of possible explanation about the fact. A good hypothesis consists of some characteristics. At first the problem is properly defined and a sound perception is made about the nature. Secondly, the previously formulated theories and various existing data concerning it are properly interpreted which helps in getting more concrete information about the problem of studies. Thirdly, if required, social surveys through questionnaire and scheduele is conducted to gather the more objective knowledge about it. Fourthly, interviews are also conducted for know-how about the issues in social science. Interviews consist of two types-direct and indirect. Fifthly the participant and non-participant observation is made. In the preparation of hypothesis, in spite of getting all the relevant information, balance of judgement, objective evaluation of the situation, and reasonable approach are of worth importance. At the final stage conclusion is reached. This is all about hypothesis in social science.

Answer : By the term "value-free" Sociology, we mean that Sociology is a science which should keep itself away from the question of social values and study social behaviour in its empirical senses. Thus, it is not the concern of the sociologist to point out the goodness and badness of social values and to determine which values are ultimately good. They may only make an empirical studies of the existing institutions. The question of 'What ought to be' is beyond the scope of sociology. The values and social fact are two different things. The former cannot be studied empirically while the latter can. The scientific inquiry should be value free.

It was German sociologist, Max Weber (1869-1920) who first used the concept 'ethical neutrality' or 'value-free' Sociology. According to him, only a value-free approach could facilitate scientific development. He tried to fence off social sciences from various irrational influences. The value bias of scholar should not influence his analysis of social phenomena. He assumes that the nature of science is such that it cannot make a rationally justified choice between value system. He further pointed out that the social scientists as an objective investigator must remain neutral about value system. It is not the task of social scientist "to offer binding norms and ideals or provide recipes for practice". Thus, to sum up, the value free Sociology implies the transfer of natural science methods to Sociology to make it more scientific.