Question : How would you like to characterize the eighteenth century in Indian history?
(2005)
Answer : The eighteenth century was a phase of transition in Indian history. The Great Mughal Empire, the envy of its contemporaries for almost two centuries, declined and disintegrated after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. A new element entered Mughal politics in this century. While previously the contest for power had been between royal princes, and the nobles had merely aided the aspirants to the throne, new ambitious nobles became direct contenders for power and used princes as mere pawns to capture the seats of authority. The administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfiqar Khan, Daud Khan, Saiyad brothers, Nrzam-uKMulk and others. Court politics was divided between Irani, Turani and Hindustani parties.
Muhammad Shah’s long reign of nearly 30 years (1719-48) was the last chance of saving the Empire. But he was not the man of the moment. He was weak-minded and frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease and luxury. He neglected the affairs of the state. Instead of giving full support to able wazirs such as Nizam-ul-Mulk, he fell under the evil influence of corrupt and worthless flatterers and intrigued against his own ministers. He even shared in the bribes taken by his favourite courtiers. The physical break-up of the Mughal Empire had begun. Hereditary nawabs owing nominal allegiance to the Emperor at Delhi arose in many parts of the country, for example, in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh, and the Punjab. Everywhere petty Zamindars, Rajas and Nawabs raised the banner of rebellion and independence. The Maratha Sardars began their northern expansion and overran Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand. The invasions of Nadir Shah (1738) and Ahmad Shah Abdali inflicted immense damage of the Mughal Empire. This shrank to a few square miles around Delhi. In the end, in 1803, Delhi itself was occupied by the British army.
The Europeans knocking at the gates of India had the benefit of coming from societies which had evolved a superior economic system and which were more advanced in science and technology. Finally the British emerged successful and took advantages of internal conflicts of Indian powers. They crushed French fleets during Anglo-French wars and prepared a ground. In the second half of the eighteenth century they fought many battles, such as the Battle of Plassey (1757), Battle of Buxar (1764) etc. and played the games of diplomacy, conspiracy and treaties against Nizam, Mysore, Awadh, Hyderabad, Carnatic and the Marathas. India failed to make progress economically, socially or culturally at an adequate pace. India of those days was also a land of contrasts. Extreme poverty existed side by side with extreme riches and luxury. There were the rich and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort, on the other, backward, oppressed and impoverished peasants living at the bare subsistence level and having to bear all sorts of injustices and inequities.
Constant warfare and disruption of law and order in many areas harmed the country’s internal trade.
Every petty or large ruler tried to increase his income by imposing heavy customs duties on goods entering or passing through his territories. While sea trade expanded, overland trade through Afghanistan and Persia was disrupted. Even so India remained a land of extensive manufactures. Indian artisans still enjoyed fame all the world over for their skill. India was still a large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk fabrics, sugar, jute, dye-stuffs, mineral and metallic products like arms, metal wares, and saltpeter and oils.
The centres of higher education were spread all over the country and were usually financed by Nawabs, Rajas, and Rich Zamindars. Among the Hindus, higher education was based on Sanskrit learning and was mostly confined to Brahmins. Persian education being based on the official language of the time was equally popular among the Hindus and the Muslims. Elementary education was quite widespread. Among the Hindus it was imparted through town and village schools while among the Muslims through the Maulvis in Maktabs situated in mosques. A very pleasant aspect of education then was that the teachers enjoyed high prestige in the community. A bad feature of it was that girls were seldom given education, though some women of the higher classes were an exception.
Many of the painters of the Mughal School migrated to provincial courts and flourished at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kashmir and Patna. The paintings of the Kangra and Rajputana schools revealed new vitality and taste. The Imambara of Lucknow reveals proficiency in technique. The city of Jaipur and its buildings are an example of continuing vigour. Music continued to develop and flourish both in the North and the South. Significant progress was made under Muhammad Shah. A noteworthy feature of the literary life was the spread of Urdu language. Similarly, there was a revival of Malayalam literature. Kerala also witnessed the full development of Kathakali literature, drama, painting and dance. In Assam, literature developed under the patronage of the Ahom Kings. Heer Ranjha, in Punjabi was composed at this time by Warris Shah. Gujarati and Sindhi languages were in full swing.
Social life was marked by stagnation and dependence in the past. Caste was the Central feature of the social life of the Hindus. The Purdah was common mostly among the higher classes in the North. It was not practiced in South. The custom of early marriage prevailed all over the country. The evils of dowry, Sati etc. were especially widespread in Bengal and Rajputana, Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the Maratha General Prashuram Bhau tried to promote widow remarriage but failed. Muslims were no less divided by considerations of caste, race, tribe and status. The Shia and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads on account of their religious differences.Question : Consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat.
(2002)
Answer : The third battle of Panipat had a very remarkable impact on the entire arena of India’s socio-political, economic and even cultural life. After the advent of European powers in India and their vicarious politics, the nation had just one hope that among indegenous powers Marathas had made remarkable gain at least in terms of territorial growth. The English had established their power in Bengal and they were waiting for the right time to get benefit of the enternal political dissension among the Indian powers.
Fighting against the invading army of Ahmad Shah Abdali at Panipat was the biggest mistake of the Marathas. It was basically a strategic mistake. Marathas had experienced a number of battles in the hilly areas. It was the first time they fought in plain area where there was face to face battle with an army which was better in artillery. Maratha’s defeat revealed the weaknesses of the Indian military. The greatest power of the country was given a hard blow that had badly shattered their strength. Secondly, Marathas indirect control on the Mughal rulers had ended and it paved the way for attack and plunder of India’s wealth. For Britishers it became easy to develop control over Delhi as Maratha control had ended. After the battle, dissension and petty politic for individual benefit started in the Maratha court. Britishers got benefit of this situation and they started interfering into their court politics.
Maratha kingdom which was extended up to the region of Bundelkhand and up to the region of Andhra Pradesh lost its territorial glory and began within Maratha confedration.
Question : Savai Jai Singh, the astronomer.
(2001)
Answer : Savai Jai Singh was the most oustanding Rajput leader of the 18th century. He was a ruler of Amber in Rajasthan whose life span was from 1681 to 1734. He was a distinguished statesman, law-maker and reformer. But most of all he shone as a man of science in an age when Indians were oblivious to scientific progress. The city of Jaipur was founded by him on a scientific pattern. In 1721 Sawai jai Singh captured churaman’s stronghold of then and the latter committed suicide. Sawai Jai Singh developed the newly founded city into a great seat of science and art. There was no scientific disadvantage in the city of Jaipur. It was built according to a regular plan. Its broad streets are intersected at right angles.
Jai Singh was a great artronomer. He erected observatories with accurate and advanced instruments. Some of them of his own invention at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varansi and Mathura. His astronomical observations were remarkably accurate. He drive up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammad Shahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations. He had euclid’s “Elements of Geometry”, translated into Sanskrit. He also gottranslated several works of trignometry and Napier’s work on the construction and the use of logarithms.
Jai Singh also tried to enforce a law to reduce the lavish expenditure which a Rajput had incur on a daughter’s wedding and which often led to infanticide. He ruled from 1699 to 1734.
