Mughal Culture

Answer : Akbar was a great patron of art and architecture. During his period Mughal architecture achieved maturity. Akbar’s building projects were many and varied. He constructed a large number of buildings at Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Allahabad and Rohtasgarh. These buildings are mostly constructed of red sand stone with limited use of marble. Being a man of liberal attitude he allowed co-minglingof indegenous Indian traditions with the West Asiatic architectural scheme. Akbar adopted areuate system only for decorative purpose. We also find use of conventional trabeate system in the architecture of his age. The ornamentation work comprises perforated screen work, artistically painted design on the walls and ceiling in gold or colours. The pillar shafts of his period are generally many sided and have bracket capitals. Red Fort of Agra was his first ambitious project. But due to renovation work done during the period of Shahjahan a major part of this palace has been altered and nothing except Jahangir Mahal has remained intact. The Delhi Gate of this fort was faced with red sand stone is an arched gateway between two massive octagonal bastions.

The most spectacular building activities of Akbar’s reign took place at Fatehpur Sikri which is about 36 km away from Agra.

At Fatehpur Sikri a large number of buildings were made for residential, religious and official purposes. Among residential buildings most important structures are Palace of Jodha Bai, and Turkish Sultana and Birbal. These buildings have domical structure which are similar to the dome shaped buildings of Lodhi period. The palace of Jodha Bai is one of the finest buildings which is identical with a Rajput Haveli of Gujarat and Rajasthan region. Many of the structural elements and motifs of decoration executed in the indegenous style impart to the palace an architectural character of its own. The house of Turkish Sultana, despite its being a small one storeyed building, is particularly remarkable for the picturesque environment of paved courts and water courses on the one hand and for profused carved decorations, of a rich variety and craftemanship.

The Panch Mahal is also remarkable for its unique design of a five storeyed building with open pavilions arranged in a pyramidal fashion and their pillars of varying designs and carvings. The most distinguished among the official buildings at Fatehpur Sikri is the two storeyed Divan-E-Khas. The most magnificent among all the buildings is the Jami Mosque with its lofty gateway called Buland Darwaza and the marvellous tomb of Saikh Salim Shah Chisti situated within its open quardrangle.

In apparent contrast to the lofty Buland Darwaza is the small but very beautiful tomb of Saikh Salim Chisti built in white marble.

During the reign of Shah Jahan Mughal architecture reached to its pinnacle. He beautified the capital cities of Agra and Delhi with splendid palaces and magnificent monuments and also created numerous elegant buildings at Ajmer, Lahore, Srinagar and other places.

Shahjahan’s is an age of marble buildings. With the change of building material the technique of surface decoration took the form of artistic inlay and multi-coloured stones in marble, representing petals and curving tendrils of conventional flowers. Structurally, too, the style changed. For example, the curve of arch assumed a multifoil shape, usually of nine foils or cups, white pillars have now foliated bases, either tapering or many sided shafts and vaulted bracket capitals. The use of double column is not infringent. The dome placed on a high drum and with constricted neck takes a bulbous shape. Infacts the domes of Shahjahan’s buildings are remarkable for their extremely pleasing contour. The earlier building activities of Shahjahan are represented by his replacements of remodelling of earlier structures in the forts of Lahore and Agra.

But the architectural activities of Shahjahan were not restricted to replacements only. New building projects were also undertaken side by side, the most important of which are the majestic Red Fort and the magnificient Jami Mosque in his new capital in Sahjahanabad in Delhi. This fort itself is an imposing structure of encircling massive walls, broken by intervals by boldly projecting bastions topped by domed kiosks, and entered through two main gateways, the Delhi and the Lahori Gates. Of the existing buildings there, the more imporant are the Diwan-i-Am, the Mumtaz Mahal, the Rang Mahal, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Khwabgah, the Hammam and Muthamman Burj. Very specially the Diwan-i-Khas has been known for Pietra-Dura work done in its interior. The magnificent Jami Masjid of Delhi is one of the most impressive mosques in India. This entire building is raised on a lofty basement having majestic flights of steps. The three bulbous domes of the mosque with inverted lotus type of pinnacle is also very attractive.

The Taj Mahal of Agra which is a marvel created of marble is the most pleasing monument of his period. The Pietra-Dura work of the interior and inscription inlaid with black marble is a wonderful creation of that period. The four white marble minaret rising in four storeys and crowned by shaply domes which stand majestically at the corners of the terrace add great attraction to the whole setting.

Thus, it can be said that Shah­jahan’s period witnessed a great transition from the forceful and robust architecture of Akbar period to sobre and elegant architectural pattern of matchless beauty in medieval architecture.

Answer : Babarnama is the autobio­graphyof Babar. It was originally written in Turkish language. Babar himself was a great poet of Turkish language. Basically, his Babarnama was a diary that comprised depiction of his ideas, experiences and feelings. This was earlier known as Tuzuk--i-Babari. Babar has mentioned little about his fore-fathers, the great Timurids and their mighty deed and his native place Fargana. Specially, his strong nostalgia for the panormic beauty of Fargana has been revealed in his diary. Barbar’s difficulties after his accession have also be mentioned in it. When he came to India it was an alien land for him and he was not much charmed by the atmosphere, fauna and flora of the country. He did not find any good orchard even not artificial fountains. The only thing he has really appreciated that is the palace of Raja Man Singh Tomar. Perhaps Babar witnessed poverty in India. He criticises Indians for not being propertly dressed. He is also a critic of the physical features of the Indians. His views about the physical built of the Indians is satrical. Babarnama also mentions about his mental tension during the early invesions as well as his feelings before Khanva.

As far as the historical significance of the text is concerned, being an autobiography it doesn’t have much significance except Babar’s feeling about Fargana and India. Despite this, the text reveals few imporant things about the likings of the Mughals, their spirited triumphalist desire.

Answer : Mughal painting witnessed a rapid change and reached its logical culmination during the reign of Jahangir. It was during the time of Jahangir that the development of miniature painting was given an impetus. Under his liberal and discerning eye, the school received encouragement. During his reign, Farrukh Beg led the school and was helped by Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad. From now onwards the Mughal school was emancipated from the tutelage of Persian influences and evolved an art style which was essentially Indian. The most important of all jahangir painters were Ustad Mansur and Abul Hasan. The former was a great expert in painting of miniatures, (birds and animals). It was under Jahangir that stress was laid on depicting natural beauty, and a number of productions were made. Some principal aspects of Jahangiri paintings are the following :

• The Persian and Indian tradition were fused into one.
• Paintings of the 'living preseent', that is picture of incidents in daily life.
• Colour contrasts & animation.
• The principal figure or object is so arranged as to stand out over other elements which normally grouped around.
• But one shortcoming of Jahangir's paintings during this time is their weak linear feature.

Answer : Architecture : The imperial Mughals were great patrons of art and architecture. They look keen interest in the planning of forts, places, mosques, tombs and even the new townships. They had their own ideas about the construction of buildins by the free amalgamation of what was called the Mughal architecture which was in fact, the national Indian architecture of that age. In architecture, the Mughal period was not entirely an age of innovation and renaissance, but a continuation and culmination of processes that had their beginning in the later Turko-Afghan Period.

Hindu influence on architectural style lasted throughout the Mughal period and expressed itself in the narrow columns, Pilasters, corbel and other expressed itself in the narrow columns, pilasters, corbel and other ornamental features of Mughal buildings. The salient features of the Mughal architecture, writes Sarkar' are the pronounced dome, slender turrets and the corners, the bells supported on pillars and the Indo-Savaunic gate which takes the form of a huge semi-dome sunk in the front wall and bearing an admirable proportion to the building while the actual entrance is a small rectangular opening under the arch'. The history Mughal architecture begins with Babur, who is said to have undertaken many building projects at Agra, Dholpur, Gwalior and other places. The adverse political circumstances didnot afford much opportunity to Humayun to undertake any significant architectural activity.

In the early years of his reign, he built a city at Delhi called the Dinpanah (world Refugee) but no remains are available of this first Mughal city. Speaking in general, the buildings of Akbar's reign combine both Hindu and Muslim features, and therefore, are correctly described as being of Hindu-Muslim style. Fatehpur Sikri which he built around the hermitage of the pious Shaikh Salim Chishti and which was the seat of the imperial court from 1569-84 constitutes perhaps the most remarkbale evidence of Akbar's genius. Perhaps the greatest feature of this city is the Buland Darwaza- the great portal built of marble and sandstone which forms the second gateway of the mosque. An authority described it 'as one of the most perfect architectural a achievements in the whole of India.' Though long abandoned and bearing the sears of time, Fatehpur Sikri forms the most impressive revelation of a mighty personality. Revelation of a mightily personality, in the words of Fergusson : 'It is simply a reflex of the mind of a great man who built it'.

Akbar built many more edifices besides the master pieces of architecture mentioned above, as for example, the Sikandra, the Akbari Mahal, and the Allahabad Fort. 'Everywhere', writes Abul Fazl'. Sarais have been built which are the comforts of travellers and the asylum of poor strangers. The new sytle of architecture (representing the combination of the best features of the indigenous and foreign styles) which may be called by the name of Mughal architecture had produced a profound effect on buildings all over the country, including those of the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan.

The places built during the reign of Akbar at Amber, Jhodhpur, Droha and Dafia indicate unsuitable Mughal influence. The number of edifices erected during the Jahangir's reign appears to be poor in comparison to the architectural record of his father. Built of white marble, the Itemad-ud-Daula mausoleum at Agra, is decorated with pietra-dura work which emulates, if not surpasses, the style of decoration in Shahjahan's reign. The style of Shahjahan's principal edifices though based on session heritage is at the same time clearly distinguishable from Persian works by the lavish use of white marble and incomparable decoration. Another salient feature of his structures is the openwork tracery which ornamnets the finest buildings, and the 'apt combination of spacious designs with an almost feminine elegance'.

The Taj Mahal which took 23 years to be built is certainly one of the unrivalled beauties of the world. Another monument is the Red Fort. The Diwan-e-khas in it with its original ceilings of silver and its decorative scheme of marble gold and precious stones fully justified the Persian inscription which it bears :

'If one the earth be an Edem of Bliss

It is this, it is this, none but this'.

Perhaps the most perfect architectural legacy of Shahjahan's reign is the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort in which the style of purity and elegance introduced by the great Mughals reached its zenith. With the accession of Aurangzeb, the style of Mughal architecture rapidly degenerate Aurangzeb built little as compared to his predecessors and the Indo-Persian architecture is marked by steady deterioration which ends with the crude buildings erected by the rulers of Awadh in the 18th century.

Paintings : The Mughals made a distinctive contribution in the field of painting. They introduced new themes depicting the court, battle scenes and the chase, and added new colours and forms. The revival began under Akbar. He organised painting in one of the imperial establishments (Karkhanas). Here painters from different parts of the country came together. Jaswant and Dasawan were two of the famous painters at Akbar's court. Indian themes and Indian landscapes became very popular, helping to free the school from Persian influence. Indian colours like peacock blue, Indian red, began to be used. Above all, the somewhat flat effect of the persian style began to be replaced by the roundness of the Indian brush, giving the pictures a three-dimensional effect.

European painting was introduced at Akbar's court by the Portuguese priests. Soon principles of fore-shortening, whereby near and distant images could be placed in perspective, were adopted. Mughal paintings especially portrait painting reached a climax under Jahangir. His court patronized many of the best artists of the time like Bishan Das, Murad, Mansur and Bahazd. While the tradition continued under Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb's lack of interest forced the artists to disperse to various provincial capitals where local governors employed them. They helped in the development of painting in the states of Rajasthan and the Punjab hills. Another school of paintings which flourished at this time was the Deccan school which was encouraged by the Bijapuri kings.

Music : Tansen, the famous singer at Akbar's court, is credited with having enriched the Hindustani school or north Indian style of music by composing many new melodies or rages. One of the most popular of these was the raja Darbari, believed to be Tansen's special composition for Akbar. The Hindustani school of music had, by now, taken many features from Persian music. Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued patronising this branch of cultural life. However, Aurangzeb in his later years, banished singing from his court. New styles of singing such as the khayal which had been developed in the Mughal court and the thumri became popular in the new centres which sprang up in the province and small kingdoms. However, music in all forms continued to be patronized by Aurangzeb's queens in the harem and by the nobles.

Answer : Ancient Indians are often charged with the lack of historical sense. They could not produce historians like Herodotus or Greece or Levy of Rome. That is why western scholars pre­sumed that there was no concept of history in an­cient India. But this is not true as the concept of history was quite different to the scholars of an­cient India. Modern historians make efforts to es­tablish relation between cause and result when they study historical events. But ancient histori­ans took interest only on those events which could provide some sorts of education.

The Mahabharata defines history as an inter­esting event of past which could teach the lessons of Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. These four purusharthas were thought to be helpful for at­taining the objective of life. History was a source of inspiration for attaining this goal of human life. So, cultural events were more important to ancient writers than political or dynastic chronology of fact. In fact, religion, spiritualism, and philoso­phy played great roles in the evolution of Indian society.

It was Kalhan who wrote his famous book in the 12th century, which can be regarded as a his­tory of modern sense. We have good number of history books related with medieval period which are not in pursuance of the trend of ancient India. So it is presumed that Indian historiography is a contribution of the Islam. Islamic historical writ­ings become available right from the invasion of the Arabs during the 8th century.

The sources of history for the medieval period are full and copious. The Indian tradition until 7th century A.D. lacked in historical writing-chrono­logical, scientific recording of events set in their correct perspective and historical causality. The coming of Islam to India heralded the age of In­dian chronicles. The epigraphic sources of medi­eval history, though not as important and valu­able as for the pre-Muslim period, are of great help in supplementing and filling gaps left by, the chronicles. The accounts of the foreign travellers are much more reliable sources of Indian history because they wrote with an admirable detachment and with intellectual curiosity exposing social re­alities of Indian society.

The Muslim rulers in India employed mostly Turk or Afghan chroniclers and court historians to record their activities. These chroniclers or his­torians adopted the medium of both poetry and prose writing in Arabic until 13th century and in Persian afterwards. Their chronology is generally sound. But theirs is more a theoretic than a hu­manistic tradition of historiography. This holds good for the Mughal historians also. These chroni­clers significantly provide information on the po­litical events, places, festivals, customs, and us­ages of both the Hindus and the Muslims and throw light on civil administration.

Some of the important chronicles or works are; the Chachnama by an anonymous writer, Tarikh-ul-Hind of Alberuni, Tarikh-i-Yamini or Utibi, the Taj-ul-Ma’asir of Hasan Nizami, the Tabakat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-us-Siraj, the Tarikh-i-Alai of Amir Khusro, the Tarikh-i-Firuz shahi of Zia-ud-din Barani, the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi of Shams-i-Siraj Afif, the Fatuhat-i-Firuz shahi, the memoir of Babur, the Humayun-nama of Khondomir, the Tarikh-i-Rashidi of Mirza Haider, the Ain-i-Akbari and the Akbar-name of Abul Fazi, the Muntakhabut Tawarikh of Badauni, Tabakat-i-Akbari of Nizamuddin Ahmad, the Tarikh-i-Ferishta.

Chachnama, Tarikh-ul-Hind and Tarikh-i-Yamini were written in Arabic. Chachnama is the most important primary account of the ruling dy­nasty of Sind or the eve of the Arab conquest in A.D. 711-12. Tahiqiq-i-Hind of Alberuni is an in­valuable source of information regarding the po­litical, social and religious conditions of India as they were in the eleventh century A.D.

Utbi’s Tarikh-i-Yamini, which applauds the military exploits of Mahmud of Ghazni lacks chro­nological sequence. Hasan Nizami’s Taj-ul-Ma’asir through rhapsodically is useful being the first historical narrative of the Delhi sultanate for the history of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish (upto A.D. 1217). It throws valuable light on In­dian festivals, amusements and the spirit of civil administration. Its medium of expression is a mix­ture of Arabic and Persian languages in poetry as well as prose.

Tabakat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-us-Siraj, the chief qazi and Sadr-i-Jahan of Sultan Nasiruddin (A.D. 1246-66) is a general history of Islam and the Mus­lim and Mongol inroads into India untill A.D. 1259. It is remarkable for its brevity and precision.

Amir Khusro’s (A.D. 1253-1325) association with six sultans of Delhi (Balban to Gayasuddin Tughlaq) and with the Sufi saint Nizam-ud-din Aulia gave him the unique opportunity of know­ing the truth about the political events and social conditions of the time.

Zia-ud-din Barani was the first great histo­rian of the period his Tarikh-i-Firuz shahideals with the history of the Delhi Sultanate from A.D. 1259 to 1359, i.e., he picks up the thread where the Tabakat-i-Nasiri leaves it. Like Amir Khusro he enjoyed high position in the Delhi court and had ample opportunity of knowing the accurate de­tails. What makes him unique is his awareness of his duty of record honestly the whole truth. Whether he did so is debated. He is very sparing and inaccurate in his dates. His account is not free from religious prejudices.

Shams-i-Siraj Afif a protégé of Firoz Tughlaq wrote Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi after the latter’s death. It deals exclusively and authentically with the his­tory of the reign of Firuz Tughlaq covering mainly three aspects, namely his (a) military expeditions, (b) justice, charity and virtue, and (c) public works, giving thus an impression that Firuz Tughlaq pre­ceding Sher Shah and Akbar used the state re­sources to promote public good. Afif, no doubt, gives a better view of the internal conditions of India and writes his account in the true spirit of a historian and biographer.

Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi, memories of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, in spite of its being a small brochure of 32 pages, contains a brief summary of his reign and is important as it gives an insight into the mind of a bigoted sultan.

The Tuzuk-i-Baburi, an autobiography of Babur, written in chaste Turki though incomplete, is a frank portrayal of the author’s faults, foibles, vices as well as his virtues. It describes political and military events of his times, as well as the conquest of Hindustan, and political and socio­economic conditions, animals and birds, flowers and trees of Hindustan.

The Tarikh-i-Rashidi (completed in A.D. 1551) of Babur’s cousin Mirza Haider Dughlat gives a first rate account of Babur’s struggles, Humayun’s contest with Sher Shah and his flight. The Humayun-namah of Khondamir is impor­tant since it describes Hymayun’s difficulties in the first three years of his reign.

The Humayun-nama of Gulbadan Begam, Babur’s daughter, written in A.D. 1587 at Akbar’s desire depicts the domestic relations of the first two Mughal rulers with their wives, sons, daugh­ters, relatives, as well as their social life.

The Akbar-nama of Abul Fazl is the most com­prehensive history of the reign of Akbar. The first part of it deals with the history of the Mughal fam­ily from Timur to Hymayun, the second with Akbar covering every aspect of the history from his ac­cession to 1602, and the third part is Ain-i-Akbari, a principal work on Akbar’s institutions.

The Tabakat-i-Akbari, of Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, the mir Bakshi of Akbar is a general his­tory from the beginning of Muslim rule in India to the 39th year of Akbar’s reign.

Abdul-Qadir Badauni’s Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh, a general history of the Muslim world, presents the author as an antidote to Abul Fazl. It is an unusually frank and critical account of Akbar’s policies-civil and religious. Tarikh-i-Firishta of Mulla Muhammad Qasim Haider Shah, written in A.D. 1606-07 is a general history of Muslim India down to the accession of Jahangir. It also gives an account of provincial kingdoms, particularly the Deccan sultanates.

The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, personal diary of Jahangir covering up to 17lh year of his reign forms a priceless record of political and military events as well as the economic, social, cultural, spiritual life of the period.

For the reign of Shah Jahan there are several first-rate chronicles-Abudul Hamid Lahauri’s padshah-nama, a description of Shah Jahan’s ac­tivities as prince and then as a ruler for the first years of his reign, Sadiq Khan’s Shahjahan-nama, an account of the reign of Shah Jahan from his accession to his deposition. Both of the works record the glories of Shah Jahan’s reign in the socio-cultural field.

Aurangzed had an aversion to recording the events of his reign. Nevertheless history writing was undertaken. Muhammad Saqi Khan’s Masir-i-Alamgiri, is a valuable history of the period. Muhammad Khafi Khan’s Muntakhabul-Lubab is the most objective and complete history of the imperial Mughals until A.D. 1733. It analyses the after-effects of Aurangzeb’s reactionary policies.