17th Century

Answer : Akbar’s relations with the Rajputs have to be seen against the wider background of Mughal policy towards the powerful rajas and zamindars of the country. When Hymayun came back to India, he embarked upon a deliberate policy of trying to win over these elements. Abul Fazl says that in order “to soothe the minds of the zamindars, he entered in to matrimonial relations with them”. Thus when Jamal Khan Mewati, who was one of the great zamindars of India, submitted to Humayun, he married one of his beautiful daughters himself and married the younger sister to Bairam Khan. In course of time, Akbar expanded and elaborated this policy.

When Akbar assumed throne he made deliberate attempt to win Rajputs to his side and enlisted their support in expansion and consolidation of Mughal rule in India. He met with tremendous success in his endeavor. It also brought decline in the number and magnitude of revolts of Rajputs. Akbar could concentrate more on his administrative and other reforms. Thus Akbar’s regime marks the beginning of friendly relations of Mughals and Rajputs.

The relationship of religious conflict between ruling elites was replaced by that of cooperation and friendliness.

The ruler of Amber, Raja Bharmal was the first one to establish friendly relation with Akbar in 1562. The younger daughter of Bharmal, Harkha Bai, was married to Akbar. Akbar gave complete religious freedom to his Hindu wives and gave an honoured place to their parents and relations in the nobility. Bharmal was made a high grandee. His son, Bhagwan Das, rose to rank of 5000 and his grandson, Man Singh to rank of 7000. Akbar emphasized his special relationship with the Kachhawaha ruler in other ways as well. The infant prince Danyal was sent to Amber to be brought up by Bharmal’s wives. But Akbar did not insist upon matrimonial relations as a precondition. No matrimonial relations were entered in to with Hadas of Ranthombhor yet they remained high in Akbar’s favour. Similarly no matrimonial relations were entered in to with rulers of Sirohi and Banswara who submitted to Akbar later on.

Following the conquest of Chittor, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar’s suzerainty and paid personal homage to him. The rulers of Jaisalmer and Bikaner had also entered in to matrimonial relations with Akbar. The only state which had stubbornly refused to accept Mughal suzerainty was Mewar. Although Chittor and the plain area around it had come under Mughal domination, Udaipur and the hilly area which formed the larger part of Mewar had remained under the control of the Rana. Akbar even adopted a hardliner approach to deal with Mewar. He re-imposed Jaziya and declared war against Rana as Jehad.

But his reliance on religion to tackle Mewar menace failed to yield decisive result. Then after the battle of Haldighati in 1576, Mughals could not establish their complete authority over Mewar. This clearly indicates that had Akbar not adopted a broad based, tolerant, friendly approach with Rajputs, it would not have been possible for him to control Rajasthan.

By 1585-86 Akbar’s Rajput policy had developed completely. His relation with Rajputs was stable and balanced by now. Rajputs were not only friends but partners in the Mughal Empire. Ain-iAkbari lists names of 24 Rajput mansabdars. Raja Todarmal was made the head of revenue department.

Akbar’s Rajput policy proved extremely successful for Mughal Empire and is considered as the best examples of his diplomatic skills. He formed strong and stable empire with the help of Rajputs, a martial clan among Hindus and he could get rid of the influence of his own conspirator nobles and kinsmen.

Politically, despite the military reverses and the mistakes of Aurangzeb, the Mughal dynasty still retained a powerful hold on the mind and imagination of the people.

As far as Rajputs were concerned the breach with Marwar was not due to an attempt on Aurangzeb’s part to undermine the Hindu’s by depriving them of a recognized head, but to a miscalculation on his part; he wanted to divided the Marwar state between the two principal claimants, and in the process alienated both, as also the ruler of Mewar who considered Mughal interference in such matters to be a dangerous
precedent.

After the death of Jaswant Singh Rathore, the Raja of Marwar in 1678, Aurangzeb ordered that the whole of Marwar be resumed as the crown land. Two queens of Jaswant Singh gave birth to two sons. The elder was Ajit Singh and Rathores demanded that he be recognized as Raja. Aurangzeb offered to grant him the title when he assumed adulthood on condition that he was raised as a Muslim. Rajputs rejected the offer and united under the able leadership of Durgadas Rathore and rebelled against Mughal Authority. Rajput rebellion became very powerful when Mewar ruler Raj Singh decided to put his weight behind Ajit Singh. After the death of Raj Singh, Aurangzeb succeeded in negotiating peace with Jai Singh. The rebellion weakened, but continued till the death of Aurangzeb and ended only in 1709, when Bahadurshah accepted Ajit Singh as the ruler.

The breach with Mewar and the long drawn-out war which followed damaged the moral standing of the Mughal state. However, the fighting was not of much consequence military after 1681. It may be doubted whether the presence of Rathore Rajputs in larger numbers in the Deccan between 1681 and 1706 would have made much difference in the outcome of the conflict with the Marathas. In any case, the demands of the Rajputs related to grant of high mansabs as before and restoration of their homelands. These demands having been accepted within half a dozen years of Aurangzeb’s death, the Rajputs ceased to be a problem for the Mughals. They played no active role in the subsequent disintegration of the empire, not help in arresting the process of decline.

Answer : Shivaji supplemented his income by levying a contribution on the neighboring Mughal territories. This contribution which came to one-fourth of the land revenue began to be called Chauthai or Chauth. Chauth was not a new feature. The Zamindars in Gujarat had been charging banth which was one fourth of the revenue in areas under their control. Thus banth or Chauthai were both in the nature of zamindari charges. The Portuguese in Diu had been, on this basis giving Chauth to the Raja of Ramnagar in return of his not raiding the area. The Mughals too, paid a fourth of the revenue of Porbandar to its zamindar. Shivaji used it to claim zamindari rights over the entire Deccan.

In practice, it became kind of protection money against Maratha depredations.

Another claim, again based on zamindari rights, was Shivaji’s claim of Sardeshmukhi. This claim which amounted to ten percent of the revenue was based on the notion that Shivaji was the head of all the deshmukhs in the area. Interesting enough, the ruler of Bijapur had also claimed to be Sardeshmukh and he was exempted of grant of Sardeshmukhi and even sar-pateli by the Bijapur ruler to some noble families. Shivaji’s claim to Sardeshmukhi was linked to his claim as the ruler of possessing superior rights over all the deshmukhs of the areas. It may be noted that when Shivaji had ascended the gaddi, he had put an impost called Singhasanapatti over all the deshmukhs.

Answer : Dara Shukoh was the eldest son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. He was nominated as his successor by Shah Jahan with the title of Wali Ahd in 1657. However, Dara had to fight a bitter war of succession with his brothers Aurangzeb, Murad and Shuja, and ultimately he was outwitted by Aurangzeb who had him done to death.

Dara Shukoh was an educated, cultured and liberal prince. He was kind and possessed liberal religious views. These qualities of Dara won for him the affection of the large number of India’s populace. These qualities of Dara Shukoh endeared him to confidence and affection of Shah Jahan.

Dara Shukoh was moreover the epitome of religious Catholicism. In this regard, he stands in the history of the Mughal Dynasty as the worthy successor of Akbar the great. He wrote a work titled Majma-ul-Bahrain (merger of two oceans) in which he concluded that the Hindu and the Muslim thought are the two sides of the same coin. He also translated the Upanishads in Persian by the title of Sir-i-Akbar.

Dara was strongly influenced by the liberal sufi thought. He joined the Qadri order of the Sufism and was disciple if the great Qadiri saint Mullah Shah Badakshi. But Dara Shukoh was not as competent as Aurangzeb in war and diplomacy. Aurangzeb humbled him in succession battles at Dharmat, Saumgarh and Deorai.

Moreover, his brothers always doubted his intentions and never accorded him the honour he deserved. Dara met his end in Delhi when he was tricked by one Malik Jivan who handed him order to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb had him executed in full public view on charges of apostasy and for being disturber of peace of state.

Thus ended the career of one of the really tolerant and liberal princes of Mughal Dynasty. Had he been alive, the cultural trajectory of Mughal India would have been rendered rich in innumerable counts.

Answer : The Mughal policy towards the Rajputs contributed to the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal Empire under Akbar and his successors. For long it has been held that the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs was determined by personal religious beliefs of the individual rulers. On this basis, Akbar’s libe-alism and Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy were considered the touchstone of their policies and its impact on the political scene. However, recently the Mughal-Rajput relations are being studied within the framework of-Mughal nobility as well as the tensions within the different segments of the nobility itself. The socio-cultural factors and the geo- strategic context of the country are equally important to be taken into account. Rajasthan (which was the connecting link between the Gangetic valley and the coastal belt of western India) and Malwa in Cntral India played a pivotal role in determining the early course of political events in North India. The Mughal-Rajput conflict cannot be understood independently but should be seen as part of a conflict which had a past history. During Babar and Humayun reign, the relations between the Mughals and Rajputs did not develop along definite and positive lines, rather it was in consonance with the political needs.

There has been a lot of debate on Akbar’s relations with the Rajputs. It is stated that Akbar’s Rajput policy was a part of a broad policy of wooing the zamindars and martial classes which included the Rajputs and Afghans. Akbar’s alliance with the Rajputs began as a political coalition but later, it developed into an instrument of closer relations between Hndus and Muslims which formed the basis for a broad liberal tolerant policy towards all, irrespective of faith. Mughal-Rajput relations in the 16th century developed according to the political requirement of the two main ruling elites in North India-the Mughals and Rajputs. In the 17th century however it suffered a setback against the backdrop of steady expansion of the Empire, internal conflicts among the Rajputs and proclamation of the principle of regional autonomy by different sections. Jahangir and Shah Jahan During the reign of these rulers the alliance with the Rajputs established by Akbar was strengthened despite certain hurdles.

Aurangzeb was the third son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan; his mother was Mumtaz Mahal, who is buried in the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb showed his ability in administrative and military matters in various appointments, which gradually caused him to envy his eldest brother Dara Shikoh, the designated successor to the throne. During his reign the mughal Rajput relation got strained due to Aurangjeb’s intereference with the internal affairs of the Marwar’s rule of succession after the the death of Jaswant singh. But during this time relation of Mughal with other vRajput sates except Marwar and Mewar were as usual. During the Aurangjeb’s reign the percentage of Rajput mansabdar in the Mughal army was greater in comparison to his predecessors.

According to historians Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s Policy of religious toleration. He basically used those policies which were already introduced by his predecessor but those were not that strong so again Aurangzeb during his reign again used those policies and one of them in Religious policy.

Aurangzeb’s religious policy was largely based on his analysis of the first half of Aurangzeb’s reign, which in his opinion was climaxed by the reinposition of Jizyah (poll tax). The other orthodox measures of Aurangzeb were insidious attempts on his part to establish an Islamic state in India which in effect implied conversion of the entire population to Islam and the extinction of every form a dissent. The religion policy of Mughal was largely the reflection of the personal religious views etc. It was a very narrow and orthodoxy kind of policy taken by Aurangzeb. He put ban on the practice, which were considered as against Islamic spirit. And many ceremonies and festivals were banned that time. Many temples were also destroyed that time. It was earlier found that long standing temple should not be demolished but no new temples allowed to be built. But later on it was found that many temples were demolished. And this was so because Aurangzeb started fearing for his political existence because there were some temple where both Hindu & Muslim used to go and learn teachings and Aurangzeb thinking that these kind of practice may hamper therefore, there should be stopped so demolishment took place.

There was also tax, which was imposed on non-Muslims like Jizyah. It was that tax which was reimposed by Aurangzeb on the non-muslims. Aurangzeb considered reimpostion of Jizyah, but postponed the matter due to “certain political exigencies”. That it was reimpossed twenty-two years after Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne is clear indication that its institution was on account of political considerations. Jizyah was used to be collected by honest God-fearing Muslims, who were especially appointed for this purpose. Because of this tax many got converted and enjoyed benefits but many did not left their religion and were being harassed. There were exception in this tax was that the women, children and the person who can not earn even for his own livelihood will be taken into consideration. So basically Jizyah was not an Income Tax but was a kind of property tax, which is imposed only in non-Muslim. These many let Islam grow.

There been several bad impacts of Aurangzeb’s policies. Some historians had said that Aurangzeb’s policies made Mughal very weak. Earlier there was no respect left for Islam and its adherents; mosques were without splendor, while idol-temples flourished; the requisites of canonical practice remained closed under bolts, while the gates of irreligious practices were flung open. That time Aurangzeb was the defender of the truth faith, converts to Islam were made much of. Many temples were given order of destruction and instead mosques built. But now because of this religious policy Mughal State had failed to yield the expected dividends. Now Aurangzeb faced difficult task of bringing under Imperial control the extensive country extending up to Jinji, populated by Hindu population and simultaneoudy he had to deal with Marathas. And situation became so worst that there seem like Aurangzeb need to make some modification in his policy. His attitude towards Hindu temples also varied from time to time according to circumstance that is political exigencies. And his attitude towards Marathas also varied. But policy was not changed. During that time many festivals & ceremonies banned and all practice, which is found against Islamic spirit, were also banned. Jizyah’s impact was also very bad.

After reading or researching it can said that Aurangzeb was very orthodox regarding his religious policy but indeed was a hardworking personality and he was of such kind that he did not even allow his officers to be spare. But even Aurangzeb got only disappointment. Reason can be that he was very orthodox regarding religious policies and also Jizyah. Religious policy was basically concern with Islamic spirits. And Jizyah was there because of this Religious policy, People who do not belonged to Islamic religion or who were non-Muslim were charged with this Jizyah tax. To conclude Aurangzeb’s religious policy we will have to go through a numbers of phases. Through Aurangzeb’s policy he brought system under tremendous pressure especially by his religious policy and also political policies. Aurangzeb’s religious policy should be seen in a wider context. Aurangzeb was orthodox in his outlook and tried to remain within the framework of Islamic law. But this law was development outside India in a vastly dissimilar situation, and could hardly be applied rigidly to India. His failure to respect the susceptibilities of his non-Muslim subjects can be seen on many occasions. And his re-imposition of Jizyah did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side or generate a greater sense of loyalty towards a state based on Islamic Law. So overall his policies had weakened his administration.

Answer : Chauth (from Sanskrit meaning one-fourth) was a tax or tribute imposed, from early eighteenth century, by the Maratha Empire in India. It was nominally levied at 25% on revenue or produce, whence the name.

The right to assess and collect this tax was asserted first by Shivaji in the later seventeenth century, on spurious grounds that his family was hereditary tax collectors in Maharashtra. The sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the chauth. Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in theMaratha kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal Empire or Deccan sultanates. Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights. Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the two instruments used by Shivaji to obtain treasure frome the enemy country he invaded.

Shivaji probably did not know the plundering raids of Mahmud of Ghazni or of Muhammad Ghori; but he took up the idea of plundering enemy countries from the Mahomedans of his time. The army of Bijapur regularly maintained 8,000 men for plun- dering the enemy country. To raise money for maintaining a large army, Shivaji followed this example and regularly plundered enemy country every year. The idea of laying an impost in lieu of plunder was natural and Shivaji adopted and extended this system of demanding Chauth or 1/4 of the revenue for exemption from plunder. Chauth exaction denoted in a way the subordination of the territory which paid it, but did not involve the dependency of the power which got it. But sometimes a subsidy is paid to a plundering people for refraining from plunder even by a powerful state, just as the British pay subsidies to Pathan tribes for abstain- ing from plundering British territory. The payment of a subsidy like this does not indicate the weakness of the paying power, as it is less costly to pay subsidies than to make punitive expeditions. But the Chauth of the Marathas was not a subsidy and was often realised by their officers. It is not possible that Chauth was paid in addition to the whole amount of revenue.

Answer : In the reign of the ruler Shivaji, there were two sources which contributed to the income of the Maratha Kingdom- Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.

Chauth : It was one fourth of the total land income of any region. It was taken from that region which was protected by the Maratha army from any foreign invasion. According to the historian Ranade, it was not only a donation to the army but was a tax given inlieu of the protection from foreign invasion. The sultans of South and the Moghals had given this right to collect this tax from their areas to the Marathas. The 3/4 part of chauth had been collected for the maintenance of army. It was collected by maratha (Sardar)chief for his own sustenance too, in the form of Saraujam. The 6% of Chauth Sahotra (tax) was kept aside safely for the Part Secretary Three percent of Chauth, which was called Not gauda was distributed by the Maratha raja at his will. 16% of this Raja kept for himself, which was collected by Peshwa or representative. With the help of this right the economy of state came in the hands of the peshwas. For the first chauth was demanded after the treaty of Purandara (1165).

Sardeshmukhi : It was an old tax given to the maratha chief as he was the head of the state (Deshmukh). According to Shivaji being the hereditary Sardeshmukh highest in rank and in lieu of being the custodian of the rights of the people, he has the right to collect Sardeshmukhi. There was an official in Qutubshahi (Golkonda) state to collect the deshmukh tax. Sardeshmukhi was equal to the 10% of land revenue, which was collected by the Maratha rulers himself or by his representative. This tax was collected from those areas which were included in the Maratha state. The Maratha chiefs used to appoint their own separate tax officials which were different from the central officials. The chief appointed officials (Aumashta) who used to collect 90% Sardeshmukhi for them.

Answer : The history of Mughal architecture can be divided into three phases. The early phase which includes Akbar and partially Jahangir, the meantime which began with Jahangir and covers the periods of Shahjehan and early part of Aurangzeb and the later phase which began with Aurangzeband covers later Mughal rulers.

The Mughal architecture attained its climax under Shahjehan. Towards the end of Jahangir’s reign began the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones. This method of decoration, called pietra dura, became even more popular under Shahjehan who used it on a large scale in the Taj Mahal, justly regarded as a Jewel of the builder’s art. The Taj Mahal brought together in a pleasing manner all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals. The Humayun’s tomb built at Delhi towards the beginning of Akbar’s reign, and which had a massive dome of marble, may be considered a precursor of the Taj. The double dome was another feature of this building the chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets linking the platform to the main building.

Mosque building also reached its climax under Shahjehan. Moti Masjid in the Agra fort was built like Taj entirely in marble and the Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red sandstone.

He also built a broad marble-paved embankment between some rocky hills at Ajmer to hold an artificial lake (Anna Sagar) which he decorated with a series of elegant kiosks.

Shahjehan concentrated on deducingthe palace buildings which would overlook the river Jamuna and run along the eastern wall at his new fort at Shahjehanabad (Delhi). He built an elegant Diwan-i-Am which contains a two-storeyed pavilion, studded with semiprecious stones. The peacock throne stood on its upper storey.

The adjacent Diwan-i-Khas has an arcaded facade of five arches. It contains an exqusite marble reason. Rang Mahal and Nahr-i-Bihisht are other important construction which took place under the instruction of shahjehan.

Answer : Among the various policies of the Mughals, Rajput policy has a special importance. Mughals put an end to the struggle between Hindu-Muslim nobility by developing good relations with the Rajputs. The beginning of Mughal-Rajput alliance can be traced to Akbar's rule. He followed a defined policy towards Rajputs. He developed a policy of friendly alliance with Rajputs under his control and made them friends. His primary objective was a consolidate Mughal Empire over India and maximize the territorial extent of his empire. He did not foroget his main mtovies while following his Rajput policy. Three points can be deduced by overviewing his Rajput policy.

1. Akbar hit at the backbone of Rajputs and curbed their strength to pose a challenge by capturing their important forts of Merlta, Chittor, Kalinjar, Ranthambhor etc.
2. Those Rajput chiefs who accepted Mughal suzerainty without any force and those who established matrimonial relations with Akbar and accepted his suzerainty, Akbar took a fixed yearly tax from then and returned them states to them and took their family members into Mughal service. Akbar did not interfere in their internal administration. Akbar gave such Rajput rulers high posts in Mughal services and gave them due social religious and political equality.
3. He tried to bring the opponent Rajput rulers under control by fighting battles with them as happend with Mewar.

Akbar imposed the following conditions on those who had aceepted the treaty and his suerainty :

• To acdept the supremacy of Mughal Emperor.
• Pay yearly tax.
• Provide military service when required.
• Determine one's foreign policy as per the needs of the Mughals.
• Akbar provided various facilities to Rajput rulers against these conditions:
• Mughals would not attack the state and protect and help against invasion from neighboring states.
• Assured protection of the ruler and ruled.
• Gave leading posts to them similar to the Mughal nobility and army.
• Independence in the field of religion, society and culture.
• Assured not to interfere in internal administration of the state.

Akbar's Rajput policy can be delineated into three phases. In first phase from the beginning of his rule Akbar followed the policy of rulers of Delhi Sultante.

Second phase is from 1575 to 1576. In this period Akbar made an effort to develop friendship with the Rajputs, however retained certain elements of his earlier policy.

The third phase begins from 1575-76 to end of Akbar's rule. In this period Akbar disassociated himself from Muslim fundamentalists. During this phase Rajputs were not only friends or helpers but became an active part of Mughal Empire.

Janangir's Attitude : During Jahangir's peirod there were various hurdles but relations or ties with Rajputs strengthened. Jahangir also followed the liberal policy of Akbar. His most important achievement was peace treaty with Rana Amar Singh of Chittor. He returned Chittor to Rana and granted mansab of 5000 and jagir to his son Karna. He did not pressurize Rana for marriage relations . Like Akbar, Jahangir also estalished matrimonial relations with Rajaputs. Although such marriages decreased after surrender of Mewar, Yet relations with other Rajput rulers were stable.

Jahangir granted mansabs of 5000 and above to rulers of Marwar, Mewar, Bikaner, Amber. In this period position of Kacchwahas weakened with respect to early period. At this time Rajputs were made Faujdar and 'Kiladar' instead of mansabdar. Like Akbar Jahangir had liberal and tolerant attitude.

Period of Shahjahan : Shahjahn also trusted Rajputs and gave high post and important tasks. Shah Jahan removed Jahangir's policy of not giving Subedari to important Rajput rulers. In Balkh and Qandhar expeditions of Central Asia Rajput rulers provided important services to Mughal Empire. Shahjahan granted mansab of 5000 to Jai Singh ruler of Jaipur and Jaswant Singh ruler of Jodhpur (Marwar). Shah Jahan got involved into a military scuffle with Rana while repairing the Fort of Chittor. In this period, less emphasis was paid on matrimonial relations. During Shah Jahan's rule Rajputs remained friends, however their role in administration decreased.

Measures of Aurangzeb : During Aurangzeb's period we see a depature from Akbar's Rajput policy. There were many reasons for this, such as Rajputs were hurt on the issue of succession to gaddi after death of Raja Jaswant Singh, intolerant behaviour with ruler of Mewar and Aurangzeb's religious fundamentalism etc. Aurangzeb also interfered in matrimonial understanding among the Rajputs. Despite all these hurdles Aurangzeb's relations with Rajput did not end. Ajmer, Bikaner, Bundi and Kota rulers had been granted mansab, but no high ranks or posts.

We don't find examples of enemity towards Rajputs in first 20 years. Of Aurangzeb's rule. Jaswant Singh and Jai Singh were also granted mansab of 7000. Although Jaswant Singh had acted as an opponent in battle of Dharmat and Khanwa, Aurangzeb later forgave him and made him mansabdar. After 1679, Marathas were incorporated in ranks of 'Umara'. In Shah Jahan's reign, Hindu mansabdar were 24% while under Aurangzeb they were 33%.

In 1679 Aurangzeb had to face the rebellion of Rathore Rajptus. In 1678 Aurangzeb did not recognise two sons of Jaswant Singh, born after his death, as successors and made Inder Singh, the ruler of Rathor Rajputs. Durgadas was annoyed due to Aurangzeb's interference in theirinternal affair. As a result Aurangzeb suppressed it by his military might. In 1680-81 Mewar Rana Raj Singh who was maternal uncle of Ajit Singh posthumous sons of Jaswant Singh reblled in support of Marwar. Situation became critical when Prince Akbar elder son of Aurangzeb allied with the rebels and conspired against Aurangzeb. In this situation Aurangzeb tried to isolate Rathors by allying with enw ruler Jagat singh of Mewar. Prince Akbar's rebellion was also suppressed. The struggle between Rathors and Mughals continued till Aurangzeb's death. After Aurangzeb's death, Ajit Singh recaptured Marwar.

In this manner, Aurangzeb could neither win Mewar nor establish his rule over Marwar. In fact these battles reflect a policy of attracting and allying local zamindars and show opposition to policy of treaty with Rajput. One factor for departure of Rajput policy under Aurangzeb was that during his rule, Mughal empires expansion was complete on North India, and now the focus shifted to providing stability to empire in Deccan. For this they wanted to ally with strong Maraths. Thus the importance and necessity of Rajputs in Mughal system greatly reduced. The importance of Marathas increased towards the end of 17th century. Now Rajputs required friendship with Mughals.

Answer : Separated from Northern and central India by the Vindhiyachal and Satpura mountain ranges, the principal Maratha land lay between the Narmada and the upper Krishna along the western-coast, stretching from Daman to Karwar, and included wither its fold the mountainous region of Berar (ancient Vidarbha), Konkan, the Godavari basin, and the valley of river Krishna. Cut off from the outside world by sea on the west, barren plateau on the east and mountains on the other sides Maharashtra Afforded a natural protection of its inhabitants from external attacks under normal circumstances. The greater part of the country comprised a rugged plateau, broken into isolated pockets by the hills and deep valleys, covered with forests, which rendered the habitats of Marathas in accessible to the huge armies of invasion. It was well-nigh impossible for any invader, however strong to overun the whole of Maharashtra in a single sweep. The Marathas constituted a homogeneous and well well-knit community of the poor and backward yet freedom-living Hindu who shared the common cultural tracts and poverty in equal proportions among themselves.

This Marathi speaking areas of the Deccan were parcelled out among the Sultanates of Berar, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and Bijapur. Berar was conquered by Ahmadnagar in 1574 A.D. and Bidar was annexed by Bijapur in 1620 A.D. The Marathas with the exception of few families like the Nimbalkars and Ghorpades were denied opportunities under the Bahmanis to rise in the services of the state. But under the succession states, particularly in the kingdoms of Amadnagar and Bijpuur, the Marathas attained high positions, both in the army and at the royal court. Under Malik Ambar, who for a time stemmed the tide of Mughal advance in the Deccan and revived the glory of Nizam Shahi dynasty, the Marthas acquired mastery which they used with great advantage in the year to come. They served in the armies or held subordinate administrative posts under the Sultans though some of them rose to be second or third rate officers as well. Maharashtra like many other parts of India, witnessed a strong religious reform movement in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Bhakti reformers, including saint Tukaram, Vaman Pandit, Eknath and above all, Samarth Guru Ram Dass, carried on Vigorous campaigns, in the spoken language of the people, against caste-system and other socio-religious evils of the Marathas, they inculcated fello-feelings and fostered a sense of unity among them.

Guru Ram Dass, particularly, played a significant role in arousing political consciousness among the Marathas against the Muslim domination, and the much-needed leadership was provided to them by Shivaji. The rise of Maratha was, thus, not a sudden on an isolated phenomenon; it was the outcome of a long and steady training received by them for over two hundred years. Similarly, Shivaji a born leader of men and genius as military commander and administrator, was not a shooting star, who appeared on the political horizon all of a sudden, instead, he was product of the age who represented the flowering of the Maratha awakening. the Dynamic personality of Shivaji and his intense love and spirit of sacrifice for his people made him immortal in the annals of the Maratha history. With the organizational set up and the inspiration provided by him, the Marathas emerged as the most powerful political force at the rational level after the decline of Mughal empire.

There were different ethnic elements in the Maratha population representing Aryan, Dravidian, foreign and tribal elements. The civil institutions as also the relgions systems maintained an equilibrium in the composite society, free from the shackles of rigidity. The literature and language of Marathas also acted as a unifying force, which finally help shivaji. Politically speaking the ground for establishing of an independent Maratha state was prepared by the advancement of the Mughal army in the south. The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of Ahmadnagar and the creation of the Mughal viceroyalty in the Deccan affected every aspect of Maratha life, which induced an awakening among the Marathas as a nation under the leadership of Shivaji and others that followed him. Shivaji died an unitmely death on April 13th, 1680 at the age of fity three. At the time of Shivaji's death the Maratha kingdom extended from Ramnagar (modern Dharampur near Surat) to Karwar (near Goa) along the western sea- coast, and included within its fold the territories of Baglan, Nasik, Poona, Satara and Kolhapur. Besides, he held pockets of territory in the heart of the Deccan plateau (Mysore region) and Karnataka along the eastern sea coast from the Tungbhadra to the Kaveri including the districts of Bellary, Chittur and Arcot and the stronghold of Jinji, Vellore and Tanjore. All these territories constituted the Swaraj- 'The Crownlands or the homeland under the direct supervision and control of Shivaji.

Answer : Nurjahan played a significant role in Mughal politics. Her original name was Mehrunissa. She was the daughter of Ghiyas Beg of Iran, who left his home and came to India in search of job. She was born at Kandhar. In 1601, Mehrunissa was married with Quli Qutub Shah popularly called Sher Afghan, faujdar of Bengal. In 1607 Sher Afghan got killed and Mehrunissa along with her daughter Ladli Begum reached Agra to her father and brother. Here Jahangir met her and gave her the title of Noormahal. In 1611, he married her and gave her title of Nurjahan. She was made 'Badshah Begum' in 1613. After her marriage, Nurjahan formed a clique consisting of her father, Ghiyas Beg, brother Asaf Khan, mother Asmat Begum and Khurram. This group led by ambitious Nurjahan influenced Jahangir's decisions policies etc. She got her father the post of Wazir with 7000 zat and Sawar Mansab. Her brother gets 6000 zat and Sawar Mansab. From 1611-22, the period is referred as a period of Nurjahan rule in India, she was the real power behind the curtain.

It is corroborated by Jahangir in his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangir 'as long as the power of state is in the hands of Nurjahan-I simply want a cupt of wine'. Everything worked very well till 1617 when Asaf Khan married his daughter Anjuman Bano Begum with Khurram. Khurram was becoming very influential and Nurjahan feared that her power would decline. She married her daughter Ladli Begum to Shahriyar, who was weak and Nurjahan self that it would allow her to retain her position. In 1621, Ghiyas Beg died and differences cropped up between Nurjahan and Asaf Khan, since Asaf Khan wanted his son-in-law Khurram to become the next emperor. The interference of Nurjahan in politics had both positive and negative impacts. Khurram revolted and in 1626, Jahangir and Nurjahan were imprisoned by him at the bank of Jhelem River. Nurjahan played some positive role as well. She introduced economics in expenditure. She introduced new fashion in the court, cheap and beautiful furniture, arranged marriages for widows and orphans. Jahangir died on 7th November 1627 at Bhimar. Nurjahan played no role in politics thereafter.

Answer : Shiavji’s rise to power during the last phase of Aurangzeb’s Empire is often treated as the result of his personal daring and heroism only. But it was not an isolated phenomenon in Maratha history. Various factors were responsible for the emergence of a powerful Maratha kingdom under the leadership of Shivaji. He was, no doubt, a shrew politician, able soldier and commander as well as constructive genius. He got success to unify dif­ferent elements scattered in the Maratha region and gave the shape of a powerful politician entity which influenced the history of India for a long time and even after his death he became a tradi­tion and legend to the Marathas.

The political structures of the Deccan were fast grumbling, while the Mughals in the north faced troubles. At the age of 19 only Shivaji captured the fort of Torna and built the fort of Raigarh. Soon he wrested many forts from Bijapur by force, bribery and trickery. For six years he suspended his ex­ploit as the Sultan of Bijapur arrested his father for his audacious behaviour. During this period Shivaji consolidated his conquests and also an­nexed a small Maratha principality of Javeli. He turned his attention towards the Mughals and raided the districts of Ahmednagar and Junnar after his father, Shahji was released by the Bijapur sultan. When the sultan of Bijapur concluded peace with Aurangzeb, he too submitted. When Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against him, he over-pow­ered and killed him by stratagem.

Since Shivaji did not stop his forays into Mughal areas, Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan against him. Nothing came out of two years of fighting. But one day Shivaji entered the secret apartment of Shaista Khan and wounded him. Boosted by his exploit, Shiavji was emboldened to attack Surat-plucked a fine leather from Aurangzeb’s tail. After this event Shivaji struck coins in defiance of the Mughal supremacy. His navy seized parts on the coast of Gujarat. Ahemdnagar was plundered and even Surat was sacked early in 1664. Now Aurangzeb firmly deals with the Maratha upstart and sent Jai Singh and Diler Khan. Shiavji’s territory was surrounded and Rajgarh was blocked. By the Treaty of Purander, Shivaji surrendered 23 forts to the Mughals, prom­ised to coopereate with the Mughal army in the Deccan and in return, he was permitted to provi­sionally collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in some districts of Bijapur. Also, Shivaji was enticed to visit the imperial court at Agra. There he was badly treated and imprisoned. Aided by a Muslim servant, Shivaji escaped and reached home.

For three years he kept quite; while Aurangzeb granted him the title of Raja and a jagir in Berar. But was once again startled and Shiavji recovered most of the forts earlier surrendered to the Mughals. In 1670, he raided Surat for the second time. In 1674 Shivaji formally crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title of Chhatrapati. Even after his coronation, Shivaji did not cease his military exploits. He conquered Jinji, Vellore and the ad­joining districts. He died a premature death in 1680.

Not only the roots of the Maratha community, but also the geographical features and the tactics adopted by the Maratha generals and the political sagacity shown by Shivaji created the history of the Maratha. The homeland of the Marathas is a hilly region. It is said by a commentator that with­out forts the region could as well be defended by the passing clouds over the Sahyadri ranges. In particular, Shiavji laid great stress on the organi­zation of forts. The way in which he entrusted re­sponsibility to officials manning the forts by mak­ing one to act as check on the other, shows the great perspicuity of Shiavji.

The roots of Maratha nationalism and state lay in the very people themselves. The Marathi language emerged in the late 13th century. The reli­gious reformers in the 16th and 17th centuries showed some social and political inclinations. The one dimension of Marathi literature was religious and philosophical. In the 17th century the Marathi literature developed one more dimension, i.e. secu­larism. The great saint-preceptor of Shivaji was Ramdas. Secular poetry found expression in the Pavadas and the Levantas, the first form was used to describe the lighting warfare and selfless valour of the Marathas. The very fact that the Maratha community emerged out of all this intellectual fer­ment indicates that its roots lay deep in the people itself, since every literature in the ultimate analy­sis is a mirror unto life.

The Maratha community which emerged in the 17th century was primarily the contribution of the castes other than the Brahmins. The Brahmins came into prominence only from the 18th century onwards, i.e., from the days of Balaji Vishwanath. The religious revival of the people was of the masses and at its head were saints and prophets, poets and philosophers, barbers and even scav­engers, thus writes Ranade. It is quite interesting to note that the comrades and the commanders of Shivaji during his epic fight against the estab­lished regimes and were principally drawn from the Mavali hillmen i.e., the people whom we call tribes. These Mavalis comprised 96 tribes and they showed the zeal of all new-born converts. Spread­ing from this nucleus of the Mavalis, a no-faith and ambition came to the Maratha community aiming at a Maratha state.

In political matters Shivaji showed wisdom. In the early days of his fight against Bijapur and the Mughals it was only a question of rightful ac­ceptance of the just claims of the Marathas, i.e., recognition of the feudal structure of the day. When Shivaji visited the court at Agra, his primary aim was not to establish an independent kingdom but to have a rightful place in the political equation of the day. It was only after Aurangzeb played a trick on him that Shivaji was driven to establish an in­dependent kingdom of his own.

The political compulsion on Shivaji’s person­ality was far too many. He occupied a number of Hindu kingdoms which came in the wake of the decline of Vijaynagara Empire. He married eight wives, all with the objective of establishing bonds with many Kshatriya families of the Deccan. Qazi Haider who worked with him, was later appointed as the Chief Justice of Delhi by Aurangzeb. Mus­lims were pleases to see a special mosque built at Raigarh in front of his own places. Apart from the sharp political insight that he had in not identify­ing himself with Hinduism alone, he showed his constructive qualities in organizing his army and also his administration. Taking into account the geographical features of the Maratha territory, he relied primarily on the navy also since the Maratha territory had a long stretch.

Answer : The Mughal nobility, after its first phase of development during the reigns of Babur and Humanyun and the early years of Akbar, came to consist of certain well-recognized racial groups. There were the Turanis of central Asia, Iranis, Afghanis, Shaikzadas con­sisting of a number of sub-groups within Indian Muslims and the Rajputs. After ascending the throne Akbar found that the nobility were more interested in furthering their individual am­bitions than the state. After he had put down the nobility, Akbar thought of integrating all these el­ements into a single imperial service. The Mansabdars of 1,000 and above were called amirs and they composed the Mughal nobility. They formed the ruling group of the Empire.

Akbar made the Mansabdars open to all - merit alone being the determining factor. The Mughal ruling class was not, however, a closed body and there was constant recruitment from amongst Cen­tral Asian and Persian immigrants of aristocratic families, from Muslim martial class, from amongst the zamindars-chiefs, especially Rajputs. Jahangir and Sahjahan made recruitment from ruling groups in the annexed kingdoms of which the Marathas and the Dakhinis were the most signifi­cant examples, and from the small intelligentsia and the significant examples, and from the small intelligentsia and the financial services. Direct re­cruitment from the world of commerce appears to have been extremely rare. The nobility of the Mughals depended practi­cally for all its income on the pay it received from the state, whether in the form of cash or jagirs, the latter came to be preferred as the years rolled by. The pay each noble received was determined by the Mansab rank he held, that is Zat rank.

Despite the fact that Aurangzeb favoured the followers of his faith only, the number of Hindus in the nobility during the second half of his reign almost doubled forming about one-third of the to­tal strength. He himself inducted large number of Marathas into the service of them 96 Maratha Sardars held ranks of 1000. Zat and above between 1679 and 1707, 16 held ranks of 5000 and above, 18 held ranks between 3000 and 4000, and 62 from 1000 to 2700, thus surpassing the Rajputs. How­ever, they were not given important commands or posts, nor were made any attempt to establish friendly social relations with them on the model of the Rajputs.