Ancient Culture

Answer : Knowledge of science was known from very ancient times, although science, as we know today, was not known in India till modern times. The archaeological remains of the Indus valley reveal knowledge of applied sciences. Scientific techniques were used in irrigation, metallurgy, making of fired bricks and pottery and simple reckoning and measurement of areas and volumes.

In contrast more is known about Aryan achievements in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Chinese records indicate knowledge of dozen books of Indian origin. Brahmagupta’s Sidhanta as well as Charaka’s and Susrata’s Samhitas were translated into Arabic in the 9th or 10th centuries A.D. name of Ganita, which included arithmetic, geometry, algebra, astronomy and astrology.It was Aryabhatta, who gave a new direction to trigonometry. The decimal system too was an innovation of India.

By the third century B.C. mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately. In the field of mathematics ancient Indians made three distinct contributions; the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal system belongs to the fifth century A.D. Before these numerals appeared in the west they had been used in India for centuries. They are found in the inscriptions of Ashoka in the third century B.C.

Indians were the first to use the decimal systems. The famous mathematician Aryabhatta (A.D. 476-500) was acquainted with it. The Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the western world borrowed it from the Arabs when they came in contact with India. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the second century B.C. From they very beginning Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, and it was used in this sense in arithmetic. In Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D. 873. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from India spread it in Europe. So far as Algebra is concerned both Indians and Greeks contributed to it, but in Western Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it from India.

In the second century B.C. Apastamba contributed to practical geometry for the construction of altars on which the kings could offer sacrifices. It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle etc. Aryabhatta formulated the rule for finding the area of the triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of his time is the Suryasiddanta the like of which was not found in contemporary ancient East.

During the Gupta period mathematics was developed to such an extent and more advanced than any other nation of antiquity. Quite early India devised a rudimentary algebra which led to more calculations than were possible for the Greeks and led to the study of number for its own sake. The earliest inscription regarding the date by a system of nine digits and a zero is dated as 595 A.D. evidently the system was known to mathematicians some centuries before it was employed in inscriptions. Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th century) and Bhaskara (12 century) made several discoveries which were known to Europe only after Renaissance. They understood the importance of positive and negative quantities, evolved sound systems of extracting squares and cube roots and could solve quadratic and certain types of indeterminate equations. Aryabhatta gave approximate value of pie. It was more accurate than that of the Greeks. Also some strides were made in trigonometry, spherical geometry and calculus. Chiefly in astronomy the mathematical implications of zero and infinity were fully realized unlike anywhere in the world.

Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave astronomy the highest place of honour. Suryasidhanta is the best known book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book can even now be used to predict eclipses within an error of two or three hours.

The most renowned sCholars of astronomy were Aryabhatta and Varhamihira. Aryabhatta belonged to the fifth century, and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhatta calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. The circumference of the earth which he measured on the basis of speculation is considered to be correct even now. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates around it. The book of Aryabhatta is the Aryabhatiya.

Varhamihira’s well-known work is called the Brihatsamhita which belongs to the sixth century A.D. Varhmihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greeks works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, there is no doubt that Indian pursued the subject further and made use of it in their observations of the planets.

Aryabhatta wrote a book when he was barely 23 years. Varhmihira of the sixth century wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Brahmagupta of the seventh century A.D. appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic. One last great scientist was Bhaskara II. One of the chapters in the book Sidhanta Shiromani, dealing with mathematics, is the well-known work of Lilavati. Nevertheless, Indian views on the origins and evolution of the universe was a matter of religion rather than of science. The cosmic schemes of Hindus and Jains in fundamentals were the same. All postulated a flat earth although Indian astronomers came to know that this was incorrect early in the Christian era. The idea of flat earth remained for religious purposes.

Regarding astronomy proper it was studied as a Vedanta. Its name was Jyotisa. A primitive kind of astronomy was developed mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be performed. Several Greek words gained momentum in Sanskrit through knowledge of Greek astronomy. The sixth century astronomer Varahamihira called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta. It is only western astronomy that introduced in India the sign of the Zodaic, the seven day week, the hour, and several other ides. Later, Indian astronomers made some advances on the knowledge of the Greeks and passed on their knowledge with that of mathematics via the Arabs to Europe. As early as seventh century, a Syrian astronomer knew of the greatness of Indian astronomy and mathematics.

In the field of medicine, Ayurveda was the contribution of India. Seven hundred hymns in the Vedas, particularly Atharva Veda, refer to topics of Ayurveda.Indeed, the whole approach has not scientific. The earliest mention of medicines is in the Atharva Veda. As in other ancient societies, the remedies recommended in it are replete with magical charms and spells.Medicine could not develop along scientific lines. In post-Maurya time India witnessed two famous sCholars of the Ayurveda, Susruta and Charaka. In the Susrutasamhita Susruta describe methods of operating cataract, stone disease and several other ailments. He mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for operations. For the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet and cleanliness. Charaka wrote the Charakasamhita in the second century A.D.It is like an encyclopedia of Indian medicine. It describes various types of fever, leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.

Surgery of some kind was known even during the Vedic period. It was only from the time of Susruta that surgery came to occupy on important place in medicine. Surgical operations were performed like taking the fetus out of the womb, including caesarian, section, treatment of fistula removal of stone from bladder and plastic surgery for the nose.

Physics was closely linked with religion and theology and it even differed from sect to sect. Almost all religions believed that the universe consisted of elements like earth, air, water and akasa (ether). Most schools maintained that there were as many types of atoms as there were elements. Some Buddhists conceived atom as the minutest object capable of occupying space but also as occupying the minutest possible duration of time-coming into being and vanishing almost in an instant only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first. This somewhat resembles the quantum theory of Planck. The Vaisesika School believed a single atom to be a point in space completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules.

In the field of chemistry and metallurgy too, some progress was made in ancient times. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits and dyed wool. From the beginning of the Christian era, there was large-scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly esteemed in the ancient world and it was exported in large quantities. Tin and mercury were imported and worked.

Answer : Ancient India has given very substantial contribution to the world in the field of art, crafts, mathematic and sciences. Sohan valley provides us chopper-chopping tools, hand-axes and even microliths which throw light on the tool-making technology which evolved in Indian sub-continent during paleolithic and mesolithic periods. Bhimbetaka, situated near Bhopal is an interesting site in context to mesolithic art. Here, on the rock bolders, specially in caves and caverns ritual and hunting scenes as well as group dances of the man of stone age have been depicted.

From Mehargarh and Kalibangan we get evidence of well developed agrarian economy and sedenry life. Mehargarh has provided seeds of grains and at Kalibangan furrow marks in an arable piece of land have been noticed which belong to Pre-Indus period.

During Harappan civilization Indian sub-continent witnessed vital changes in the economic life and it was a period of great technical advancement made in different feilds. Ceramic bi-chrome as well as polychrome were made during the period. Masonic art especially bead-making became an important craft. Klin-bricks of same measurement and proportion were made under a centralized system of production. Homogenity in technique and uniformity in plan of the cities reveals the fact that Harappan architects had ample knowledge of geometry and even mathematics. English-bond and Flemish-bond methods have been used by the Harappan architects as the technique of bonding the bricks and erecting majestic houses.

Lost-wax technique was also known to the Harappans. The statue of the dancing girl is a splendid testimony of this technique.

Vedic Sulva Sutra which elucidates about the construction of the Vedic alter gives immense information about different geometrical forms. Though no any text on Vedang Jyotisha has been yet discovered, but tradition says that astronomy and astrology was an integral part of Vedic sacrifices.

During 6th century B.C. coinage system evolved in India. We have a good number of punch-marked coins belonging to this period. Maurya periodis no doubt a landmark in the history of India’s science and technology. Magasthenese describes the agrolithic nature of the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra which excelled in beauty and grandeur than the western Asiatic cities of Susa and Ekbatna.

Ashoka was a great patron of art and architecture. It was during his period that monolithic colossal pillars were made and installed at various places. These pillars have been known to the world for their lustrous gloss. This gloss in generally known as Mauryan polish which was created by constant rubbing on the surface till desired gloss was attained. Barabar cave, especially Loma and Sudama caves are significant examples of the masonic technology of this period. These caves marked the beginning of rock-cut architecture in India.

A number of art schools flourished during Sunga, Satvahan and Kushana period. Mathura, Gandhar, Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Amarawati and Nagarjuni-Konda are world famous for sculptural art and magnificent stupa.

Rock-cut caves having exquisitely carved out facade and gigantic pillars surmounted by animal capitals are wonderful architectural creations of the world. Rock-cut caves of Bhoja, Kondane, Karle, Nasik and Ajanta are the splendid specimen of the stupendous effort that Indian artisans did in this era.

During Kushana period important texts like Charak Samhita and Sushrut Samhita were written on Ayurveda. Gupta period has been regarded as the glorious and golden age in Indian History. In this period a good number of books were written on science, technology and mathematics of that period.

Aryabhatta, wrote Aryabhathiyan and Suryasidhantika respectively on mathematics and Indian Astrology. Aryabhatta has given details about solar eclipse, rotation of earth and changes of seasons. We also know from his books that use of zero, decimal system and alzebra was known to Indians during ancient period.

Iron pillar now installed at Mehrauli is a great example of metallurgical art and technology of this period. Sultanganj Buddha image of bronze is another great example of metallurgical art.

Nagar style of temples having curvilinear spire emerged during this period. Deogarh temple of Jhansi is a great testimony of the masonic art of that age.

During Post Gupta period, a number of great works were done on different faculties of learning. Vagbhatt wrote Astanghriadya, a text on Ayurveda that describes the eight important organs of human body. Books on veterinary science like Hastichikitsa of Pal-Kappya and Asvachikitsa by Salihann were written. Bhaskracharya wrote a compendium on mathematics named Leelavati.

Brahmgupta wrote Bramsphuta Sidhanta which covers astrology, astronomy and also physics. Sidh Nagarjun was another great scholar of this period. His greatest contribution to the field of ancient chemistry is Ras Ratnakar. During this period various texts related with canons of sacred architecture were also compiled. Aparajitprichcha, Samar­anganstradhar, Mayamatta, Ishanvisviagurudeopadhati etc. are some of the best known books on religious edifices of the country. Vishnudharm otharapuran, which is a part of Vishnupuran, elucidates about the technique of wall painting and iconometry.

Rock-cut caves of Elphanta, Ellora and Ajanta and the lofty temples of Pallava and Chola period like Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram and Vrihdeshwara temple of Tanjor are the finest examples of Indian architecture as well as art which are based on scientific principles and paradigam of balance, proportion and iconometry.