World Wars

Answer : The First World War was the most frightful war that the world had so far seen. The devastation caused by it had no precedent. Ranging for over four years, the war was fought at in all conceivable ways.

It was a total war and not restricted to wars between states. The most lasting and immediate result of the war was sense of disillusionment.

The number of persons who fought in the war was staggering. More astounding was the war casualty. The total number of those killed or dead in war was about nine million. Many times this number got wounded and physically crippled for life. The air raids, epidemics and fineries killed many more, among the civilian populations. The result of all this was that a sense of disillusionment prevailed among the people about the war. People felt tired of continuous periods of war and were disillusioned by constant warfare. The people were also disillusioned by their governments. Consequently, many war-time governments lost power. The Hohenzollern rule ended in Germany and Germany became republic. There was an uprising in Hungary and a short-lived revolutionary government was formed. Inspired by Russian Revolution, there were revolutions in many other countries in Europe such as Finland and Baric States of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania. There were movements in other parts of Europe for improvement in living conditions. France also could not attain political stability. Many governments came and fall. The government also changed in Britain where Labour Party came to power in early twenties.

One significant manifestation of disillusionment was the growth of socialist and communist parties in almost all countries of Europe. Further, the growing disillusionment with the existing governments contributed substantially for the rise of totalitarian regimes like Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany.

In economic field also there was disillusionment. War years had seen increased production for military needs and consequent spirit in employment. Once war ended, the production had to be sealed down. Further, many industrial establishments and economic infrastructure had been destroyed in war. This led to serious problem of unemployment and consequent disillusionment. The disillusionment became galore when the severest economic crisis. The world economic depression gripped the world which drove half of population to subsistence levels thereby spelling down for their livelihoods. Disillusionment also marveled in other parts of Asia and Africa against imperialist countries backtracking on their promises.

The World War I thus contributed to disillusionment and riding on this tide of disillusionment, dictators like Hitler pushed the world towards other catastrophes in form of World War II.

Answer : France annexed the Independent Republic of Alsace-Lorraine, the country which had been established in the wake of Kaiser Wilhelm II’s abdication, corresponding to the region which had been ceded to the German Empire during the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. At the 1919 Peace Conference, President Clemenceau’s aim was to insure that Germany would not seek revenge in the following years. To this purpose, the chief commander of the Allied forces, Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, had demanded that for the future protection of France the Rhine River should now form the border between France and Germany. Based on history, he was convinced that Germany would again become a threat, and, on hearing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany substantially intact, he observed with great accuracy that “This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years.” The destruction brought upon the French territory was to be indemnified by the reparations negotiated at Versailles.

This financial imperative dominated France’s foreign policy through-out the twenties, leading to the 1923 Occupation of the Ruhr in order to force Germany to pay. However, Germany was unable to pay, and obtained support from the United States. Thus, the Dawes Plan was negotiated after President Raymond Poincaré’s occupation of the Ruhr, and then the Young Plan in 1929. Also extremely important in the War was the participation of French colonial troops, including the Senegalese tirailleurs, from Indochina, North Africa, and Madagascar. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and continued to be treated as second class citizens, many became the nucleus of pro-independence groups. Furthermore, under the state of war declared during the hostilities, the French economy had been somewhat centralized in order to be able to shift into a “war economy”, leading to a first breach with classical liberalism.

Answer : The great world depression that had started with wall street crisis in 1929 had a remarkable impact on the economy of world and it also effected the then political order of the world. On the economic sphere this economic crisis had caused the problem of unemployment and poverty. In Germany where industrial development had uplifted the masses economically became unemployed as the industries stopped manufacturing of the goods. This also caused financial deficit to governments of Germany, England, France and USA. Ultimately to cope up with the situation British government had to abandon the gold standard and to adopt the policy of devaluation of Sterling in 1931. England also adopted cheap money policy. All the countries of Europe adopted policy of protection and imperial preference. In American policy of New Deal was adopted to face the new economic challenges.

As democratic forms of government had not been able to solve the problems generated by the Economic Depression, in some of the European countries dictatorial rule emerged. Another important change that occurred on the political sphere was the fall of the Labour government in England. People in Europe started opposing capitalism and supporting socialism as it aimed social welfare. Due to this crisis a kind of very practical nationalism emerged in Europe which lastly resulted in economic cum political rivalry which was the most important cause of the second world war.

Answer : The great world depression that had started with wall street crisis in 1929 had a remarkable impact on the economy of world and it also effected the then political order of the world. On the economic sphere this economic crisis had caused the problem of unemployment and poverty. In Germany where industrial development had uplifted the masses economically became unemployed as the industries stopped manufacturing of the goods. This also caused financial deficit to governments of Germany, England, France and USA. Ultimately to cope up with the situation British government had to abandon the gold standard and to adopt the policy of devaluation of Sterling in 1931. England also adopted cheap money policy. All the countries of Europe adopted policy of protection and imperial preference. In American policy of New Deal was adopted to face the new economic challenges.

As democratic forms of government had not been able to solve the problems generated by the Economic Depression, in some of the European countries dictatorial rule emerged. Another important change that occurred on the political sphere was the fall of the Labour government in England. People in Europe started opposing capitalism and supporting socialism as it aimed social welfare. Due to this crisis a kind of very practical nationalism emerged in Europe which lastly resulted in economic cum political rivalry which was the most important cause of the second world war.

Answer : Second world war caused enormous destruction of lives, homes, industries and communication in Europe. After this war the USA and USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations in the world, and they were no longer as isolated as they had been before the war. The USA had suffered relatively a little from the war and had enjoyed great prosperity from supplying the other allies the war material and food. The Americans had the world’s largest navy and airforce and they controlled the atomic bombs. The USSR, though severely weakened, still had the largest army in the world. Both countries were highly suspicious of each other’s intentions and had started polarizing European powers in their own favour. The rivalry of these super-powers is known as cold war and had been responsible for the divide of the Europe Eastern and Western. It was a kind of ideological divide. The countries of Eastern-Europe were influenced by the socialist ideology and so naturally they were inclined towards Russia while countries supporting capitalism and democratism were polarized in favour of USA.

The establishment of Communist governments is Eastern Europe caused alarm in the West. Due to Russia’s interference Communist governments were formed in Poland, Hungry, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. In response to their Communist governments North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was took place that was to co-ordinate defence of the Western Europe.

Answer : The four leaders - American President Wilson British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Clemenseau and Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy - entrusted with the responsibility of taking a decision had no identity of interests. Woodrow Wilson, who headed the American delegation had come to establish a long and durable peace based upon justice and neutrality. Wilson was an idealist who had two objectives before him. Establishment of League of Nations and acceptance of the principles of self-determination. Wilson’s idealism came into sharp conflict with materialism at the conference and in most cases materialism triumphed.

With his long experience and diplomatic abilities clemenseau was the most influential leader not only in France but in the whole conference. In 1870, he had seen with his own eyes how Germany had inflicted a crushing defeat on France and nursed an ardent desire to take revenge on Germany. He hated idealism and did not consider himself bound by the fourteen points of Wilson.

Lloyd George had won the 1918 elections by propagating the feelings of revenge. He was a great diplomat and had three objectives - extirpation of Germany as a marine rival, to check the rise of Fance and a lion’s share in the booty.

Orlando was not only a learned person but also a good orator and a skilled diplomat. He displeased Wilson by insisting on the fulfillment of the promises made in the secret alliances during the war and finally walked out of the conference after some time.

All of them were great leaders and had their own understanding of the situation. While Wilson wanted to establish a long and durable peace based upon justice and neutrality, clemenseau and Orlondo were more keen to protect the territorial interests of France and Italy respectively. They were not much bothered by the problem of world peace. Lloyd George was no doubt eager to establish international peace on the basis of truth and justice, but he was willing to do all this only if the interests of Great Britain were protected. Hence the proceedings of the conference were hindered by the conflicting approaches adopted by the personalities.