Question : Discuss the main characteristics of Fascism.
(2007)
Answer : A number of political movements which arose in Europe after the World War I are generally given the name “Fascist”. The common features of this movement were their hostility of democracy and socialism and the aim of establishing dictatorships. They succeeded in many countries of Europe, such as Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Germany and Spain. Their success in Italy and Germany had the most serious consequences.
The term Fascism is of Italian origin. It was first used fro the movement which started in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. The movement had certain well-defined features.
Foremost characteristic of Fascism was extreme Nationalism. It meant an emphasis on the rebirth of the nation after a period of decline. It signified building up of the greatness and prestige of the State. It also meant that one’s own nation is superior to all others.
Secondly, the characteristic of Fascism is that of setting up of a totalitarian system of Government. This meant a complete way of life in which the government attempted to arouse and mobilize the great wars of ordinary people, to control and organize with strong discipline as many aspects of people’s lives as possible. This was necessary to promote the greatness of the state, which was more important, the interests of the individual.
The third notable characteristic of Fascism was that a one-party state was essential. There was no place for democracy. Fascism was especially hostile to communism in which explain much of its popularity. The fascist party members were the elite of the nation and great emphasis was placed on the cult of the leader who would win mass support with thrilling speeches and skillful propaganda.
Economic self-sufficiency (austerely) was partially important in developing the greatness of the state. The government must therefore direct the economic life of the nation, through not in the Marxist sure of the state owning factories and land.
Another vital characteristic of Fascism was that the military strength and violence were considered an integral part of the way of life. Mussolini himself remarked – “Peace is observed: Fascism does not believe in it”. Hence, they fostered the myth that they had sieved power by force, they allowed the violent treatment of opponents and critics, and they pursued an aggressive foreign policy.
In Italy, all parties except the Fascist were suppressed. Persistent opponents were either exiled or murdered. However, the Italian septum still was fewer brutes than the Germany. Further, the Prime Minister (Mussolini) was responsible only to the king, not to the parliament.
The Prime Minister could rule by dive, which meant that new laws did not need to be discussed by Parliament. The electorate was reduced from about 10 million to 3 million. Although, the Parliament met all important decisions were take, by the Fascist Grand Council. Elected town councils were abolished and towns were run by officials appointed from Rome. In practice, the local fascist party bosses often held as much power in the government officials.
Fascists believed in strict press censorship in which anti-fascist news-papers and magazines were either banned or their editors replaced by fascist supporters. Radio, films and theatre were controlled in the same way. The fascists also supervised the education.
Fascists had to wear uniforms and new text books were written to glorify the fascist system. Children were encouraged to criticize teachers who seemed to lack enthusiasm for the party. Children and young people were forced to join the government youth organizations which indoctrinated them with the brilliance of dice and glories of war. The other main message was total obedience to authority which was necessary because everything was seen in terms of struggle – “Believe, obey, fight!”
The Fascist government further believed in cooperation between employers and workers and to end class warfare in what was known as the corporate state. Fascist controlled unions had the sole right to negotiate for workers, and both unions and employers associations were organized into corporations, and were expected to work together to settle disputes over work and pay conditions. Strikes and lockouts were not allowed. The twenty-two corporations, each dealt with a separate industry, was Mussolini’s way to control workers and direct production and economy. To compensate for their loss of freedom, workers were assured of such benefits as free Sundays, annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre facility and cheap tours and holidays.
The Race theory was vitally important for Nazism, the German variety of Fascism. The theory was that the mankind could be divided into two groups-Aryans and non-Aryans. The Aryans were the Germans, ideally tall blond, blue-eyed and handsome. They were the master-race, destined to rule the world. All the rest such as Slave coloured peoples and particularly the Jews were inferior and were destined to become the slave races of the Germans. Hitler’s Nazism was in many ways similar to Mussolini’s Fascist system. Both were intensely anti-communist and became of this drew a solid basis of support from all classes. Secondly, both attempted to organize a totalitarian state controlling industry, agriculture and the way of life of people. Both the systems attempted to make their countries self-sufficient economically. Both emphasized the close unity of all classes working together to achieve there ends. Both emphasized the supremacy of the state and were intensely nationalistic.
However, despite being totalitarian mates, there were significant differences between Italian fascism and its German variant. To begin with, Fascism was seemed to take root in Italy as deeply as it did in Germany. Then, the Italian system was not as efficient as that in Germany and there were no mass atrocities. Italian Fascism was not particularly anti-Jewish or Fascist until 1938 when Mussolini adopts the policy to enumerate Hitler. Further, Mussolini was more successful than Hitler with his religious policy after his agreement with the pope in 1929.
Finally, their constitutional positions were different. Monarchy still remained in Italy. The king was normally ignored, but played a vital role in 1943 when Mussolini was dismissed by him. Unfortunately there was nobody in Germany who could dismiss Hitler.
The rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany held portentous future for the world. Their extremely nationalistic policies, and their ever-readiness to go far war which they glorified as sign of national visibly before long pushed the world to that second world war which wreaks havoc on humanity.
Question : “They have stopped me from making Italy by diplomacy from the North, I will make it by a revolution from the south.”
(2005)
Answer : The unification of Italy constitutes a saga of diplomacy and courage of the people of Italy. In making a united Italy, Cavour played the most remarkable and paramount role. In the initial stages, Cavour banked upon negotiations and diplomatic maneuvering to achieve the aim of united Italy. When the efforts yielded results not to his liking, he took recourse to what has been called direct and overt steps to make the Italy unified under a single ruler.
Count Cavour was a diplomat par excellence. Initially, he took recourse to diplomacy. He realized with considerable wisdom that Piedmont alone cannot achieve unification of Italy. This diplomatic effort thus turned towards enlisting the support of other nations of Europe and to isolate Austria for the unification of Italy.
His participation in the European war and entry into the Congress of Paris in 1856 was results of his diplomatic move. In yet another brilliant move, Cavour prompted Napoleon III of France to sign an agreement known as the Pact of Plombiers by which Napoleon agreed to join Sardinia in the event of a war with Austria, provided that Austria turns out to be the aggressor. Assured of the French support to Italian cause, Cavour provoked Austria of Sardinia and France captured Lombardy by defeating Austria. Then, just when the capture of Venice appeared within the reach of the allied forces, Napoleon III called a halt and arranged for truce at villa Franca between Italy and Austria in 1859. Italy could retain Lombardy, but war drew to close.
Thus, Cavour’s efforts at unification of Italy from the North could not be fully successful. As a result he planned to bring about the unification of Italy from South. As a logical step in this direction, Cavour promised Garibaldi and his lieutenants his unstinted support in Naples and Sicily. Cavour connived at the departure of Garibaldi’s expedition and gave him secret support. Garibaldi and his Red shirts won victories in Sicily and Naples. Plebiscites were held in Sicily, Naples, Umbria and Marches which decided in favour of joining with the kingdom of Sardinia. In 1861, the first Italian parliament representing all Italy except Rome and Venetia met at Twin and Cavour’s policy of diplomacy and revolution proved successful. The unification of Italy delivered the first solid flow to the iniquitous and reactionary order built so assiduously by the Congress of Vienna under Metternich.Question : ‘To Bismarck the conclusion of the Treaty of May 20, 1882, was the culmination of this system...’
(2004)
Answer : Bismark Negotiated and signed in May 1881, the Triple Alliance brought Italy into the alliance previously agreed between Germany and Austria-Hungary (in 1879) as a counterweight to France and Russia.Under the provisions of this treaty, Germany and Austria-Hungary promised to assist Italy if she were attacked by France, and vice versa: Italy was bound to lend aid to Germany or Austria-Hungary if France declared war against either. Additionally, should any signatory find itself at war with two powers (or more), the other two were to provide military assistance. One of the chief aims of Bismark was to prevent Italy from declaring war against Austria-Hungary, towards whom the Italians were in constant dispute over territorial matters.
Although regularly renewed up until the outbreak of war in 1915, the Triple Alliance was essentially ineffective with regard to Italy’s participation, for in 1902 (just five months after the latest renewal of the Alliance) Italy reached an understanding with France that each would remain neutral in the event of an attack upon the other. Triple alliance among Germany, Austria, and Italy, concluded for five years and renewed at intervals until 1915.
According to the provisions of the treaty if Italy was attacked by France without provocation, Germany and Austria would come to Italy’s aid; Italy was to come to Germany’s aid if the latter was attacked by France; if one or two of the contracting parties were attacked or involved in war with two or more great powers, the nonattacked member or members of the alliance should come to the aid of the other or others; if one of the allies should be forced to make war on some other great power, the others were to preserve benevolent neutrality. The treaty was the result of Italy’s isolation after the French occupation of Tunis and also a reflection of popular demand for security against radicalism and the prospect of intervention by other powers in behalf of the pope. The Italians wanted above all a treaty of guaranty, assuring them of the possession of Rome.
Question : Bismarck united Germany not by majority of votes and speeches, but by a policy of “blood and Iron”. In the light of this statement assess the contribution of Bismarck to the Unification of Germany.
(2003)
Answer : One of the major features of the 19th century history of Europe was the struggle for national unification and independence. In the 18th century Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states were very small and did not extend beyond the limits of a city. During the Napoleonic wars many of there states ceased to exist. At the end of the wars these were still thirty-eight independent states in Germany. Among them Prussia, Wurtemberg, Bavaria and Saxony were fairly large. Militarily and in extent Prussia was the most powerful. It was also the most powerful. It was also the most reactionary. The big landlords of Prussia known as junkers formed the dominant section in Prussian society.
The division of Germany into a number of states had hampered the economic development of Germany. The social and political system in these states was also very backward. With the growth of national consciousness, particularly after the French Revolution, the people of these states had started demanding the national unification of Germany, establishment of democratic government and social and economic reforms. In 1815 the German states along with Austria were organised into a Germanic confederation. However, each state tried to preserve its independence and its oppressive political and social system.
In 1848 revolts occurred in every German state and the rulers were forced to grant democratic constitutions. To unite Germany and to frame a constitution of the united Germany, a constituent assembly met in Frankfurt. The initial success of the revolts had made the German democrats and nationalists think that victory had been achieved. While they debated the clauses of the constitution the rulers prepared themselves to suppress the movements. The Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the king of Prussia who would become emperor of Germany. However, the king of Prussia declined the offer. With the failure of the revolution of 1848 to unify Germany, one phase in the struggle for unification came to an end. Now Germany was to be unified not into a democratic country by the efforts of the revolutionaries but by the rulers into a militaristic empire. The leader of this policy was Bismarck.
Bismarck belonged to the class of land-owning squires or junkers of Prussia. There was nothing in his early career to give promise of his future greatness. He joined the Prussian civil service but was dismissed for his irregularity. He made his debut in politics in 1847 as a member of the Prussian Diet. During the upheavals of 1848-89 he vigorously opposed the German democrats and liberals and made himself prominent as a fierce reactionary. From 1851 to 1862 he proved himself eminently successful in the Prussian diplomatic service. As a Prussian delegate in the federal diet at Frankfurt and as Prussian ambassador to Paris and St. Petersburg, he gained a deep knowledge of German and European affairs. His great opportunity came when he was called upon by the king to head the ministry.
In support of King’s army reform Bismarck had declared that Germany was looking not to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power. In words which have become classic he clarified his pointed view and said “not by speeches and resolutions of the majority are the great questions of the day to be decided they are to be decided by blood and iron”. To Bismarck a powerful army was to be great instrument for carrying out a wider policy. The policy of ‘blood and iron’ meant a policy of war. He had in view, viz., the unification of Germany through the might and leadership of Prussia. While he was Prussian delegate at Frankfurt, he had found, much to his annoyance, that Austria would never treat Prussia as her equal. Hence he developed a anti-Austrian feelings and came to the conclusion that “Germany was too narrow for Austria and Prussia”. He had clear cut view that Germany must be united but the unification must be effected under the dominant leadership of Prussia. He was a Prussian to the core and to him a united Germany meant an extension of Prussian powers a Prussianised Germany. But prussia would never be able to assume the leadership of Germany as long as there was Austria to thwart her projects. Hence Austria must go, and as she would not go voluntarily, war was necessary. This was the inescapable conviction of the loyal Prussian minister and he was determined to act upon it. He aligned with Austria in a war against Denmark over the possession of Schleswig and Holstein. After Denmark’s defeat, he entered into an alliance with Italy against Austria, defeated Austria and dissolved the Germanic confederation. Thus Austria was separated from the other German states. In place of old confederation he united 22 states of Germany into North German Confederation in 1866. The constitution of this confederation made the king of Prussia the hereditary head of the constitution.
The unification of Germany was completed as a result of war between Prussia and France. In 1870 Louis Bonapart, declared war on Prussia in the hope of maintaining his empire through military victory. The was partly provoked by Bismarck. The French armies were defeated and the French emperor was captured. Germany’s unification was completed as a result of the war which enabled Bismarck to absorb the remaining German states into a united Germany.
Question : “Napoleon kindled the national sentiment, but German unity was achieved by Bismarck.” Discuss.
(2002)
Answer : Napoleon’s invasion on Germany was a great historical event. No doubt it was the imperialistic expansion of the French empire under the leadership of Napoleon, but it can be termed as a blessing in disguise. Before Nepoleon’s attack on German region the entire Germany was divided into 300 states. It was Napoleon who steel-frame of administration. Nepoleon created a Federal set up of 39 states. These 39 states were created out of the 300 states and thus a political unity was established. This Federal set up created by Napoleon had a psychological effect of the minds of millions of Germans and they first time felt that they were part of one cultural land.
Later on the actual role in this regard was played by Bismarc who was genius diplomat and had united Germany not only by a better domestic policy but also by international diplomacy. As a diplomat he was totally against democracy and liberal political ideas. He followed the policy of Blood and Iron and did the best from his side for the unity of Germany under the leadership of Prussa. After 1851 Bismarc emerged as a great supporter of autocracy and had started constant effort for the unification of Germany under the banner of Prussa.
When Bismarc was sent to Russia he won the support of Russian ruler against France. Again he was sent to France, there he won the sympathy of Napoleon III. Later on when he was appointed as the chancellor of Germany his real endeavour for German unity had started. After becoming the Chancellor of Germany he adopted the policy of Blood and Iron. He strengthened the unilitary and paid attention to made his state a military power. Another important step was establishing very stringent control on the parliament. In this way he made him the most influential man in all the political affairs. His another aim was to stop the interference of Astria in German region. In 1862, he supported Russia in trampling the rebeltion in Poland region just to get Russian support. He also established economic relation with France.
As far as his military action is concerned he first attacked on Denmark. In this battle, he managed the support of Austria against Denmark. After the battle Austria got the region of Holestine that was the region inhabited by German. This was also a diplomatic win for Bismarc displayed hostile approach towards Austria which was the biggest hurdle in German unification. Before a direct conflict he strengthened friendship with France and assured to give France some of the resourceful regions. Bismarc had also reigned a secret treaty with Sardinig against Austria. In this battle Austrian army fought on different fronts and during the battle it remained denied this proved beneficial for Prussa. After this battle states of Henovar, Holestine, Slesmige were merged into Prussa.
France-Prussa war was another great success for Bismarc this war had become inevitable as Bismarc had not given the region of Rhine valley to France after his victory in the war against Austria. The question of Luxemburg also added fuel to the fire against Bismarc managed the support of Italy by giving to it Venetia. This battle was the best opportunity for Italy to establish its control on Rome. French received a great set back in this battle and after the Treaty of Frankfurt on 26 Feb, 1871 Prussa got the region of Strasberg and Loren and also 20 crore pond as war identity. This victory on France unified the whole Germany.
Thus it is true to say that Napoleon kindled the natural sentiment of the Germans and Bismarc establish the real political unity and integrity.
Question : ‘Bismarck created new Germany with the policy of ‘blood and iron’.
(2001)
Answer : Otto Von Bismarck, the architect of the German Unification, believed in a policy of blood and iron (militarism) to achieve his object. Unmindful of the resistance offered by the popular House of the Prussian Diet, Bismarck embarked on an ambitious programme of militarisation. He not only raised a large number of soldiers but also imparted them training in the use of new weapons. As a result, the military strength of Prussia considerably increased. He asserted that significant problems could not be solvedby mere speeches and public opinion but only through bloodshed and rattling of war weapons. He used his diplomatic skill not to win an ally to accomplish his work but to isolate his target to attack. He did not wait for international crises to render his task easier.
Having satisfied himself that Prussia was strong enough to challenge Austria, he picked up a quarrel with Austria by his skillful manipulation of the dispute between Germany and Denmark about the old question—control over the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Treaty of Prague gave Prussia the power to expell Austria from German affairs. The treaty arranged for a new federal constitution to be set up for Germany north of the maine, alongside an association of southern German states with an independent international existence.
The size of Prussia was thus enlarged. Its dominance in northern Germany was guaranteed. The Prussian king became the President of the NorthGerman confederation and her chancellor the federal chancellor. The Prussian army and postal system became federal pillars. Bismark thus achieved no less and no more than what he intended. Bismark apprehended possibility of war with France in near future. He thought that only in the event of such a war could it be possible to overcome the reluctanceof south German princes to enter the confederation. Far from using war to promote unification, Bismarck sought unification in order to continue war.
The war between France and Germany broke out in 1870 and ended in 1871. When, the war broke out, the South German states joined the North German Confederations and thereby completed the unification of Germany.
