Indian Heritage & Culture

Answer : India has one of the most unique and varied art palettes in the world. These include murals, paintings, wooden and cloth art, petroglyphs and other assorted forms ranging from the paleolithic to the modern era.

The safeguarding and preservation of this invaluable heritage is the need of the hour as it is under threat from

• Lack of funds and practitioners for various art forms. For example, the art form of the Warli tribals of western Maharashtra and the Kanniyan koothu of Tamil Nadu are fast dying due to lack of interest in the youth to practice them.
• Lack of documentation and digitization of art forms leading to piracy and losing of art forms from memory.
• Cultural homogenization and westernization leading to many art forms disappearing altogether from public gaze.
• Lack of economic opportunities for practitioners for these art forms.
• And, inadequate storage and maintenance of art forms in controlled environs. The fire at the National Museum of Natural History is an example of the same.

To safeguard such heritage several steps have been taken:

• Digitization of art forms under INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) has been taken. Passage of AMASR (Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 2018) which provides protection to monuments too is covered.
• Many CSR and government initiatives promoting art forms like the painting of railway stations in Bihar with Madhubani paintings are giving economic opportunity and cultural relevance to these practitioners.

These steps have to be intensified and taken up on a grander scale so that the art heritage of India can not only be protected but also conserved and exported across the world as an example of her diverse artistry and soft power.

Answer : Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a mystic who was active in the Bengal region during the 15th and 16th century and whose contributions to the Bhakti movement can be felt even today in the culture and religious practices of the region. He is said to have re-oriented the Bhakti movement because:

• He popularized the sect of Vaishnavism, known in Bengal as Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Prior to this, Bengal was a stronghold of the Shakti cult.
• Sri Chaitanya identified with the Krishna cult and wove into it several local and tribal deities giving it a syncretic feel.
• Encouraged the spread of Bhakti into other regions from Bengal, especially in the east, into Odisha where he spent nearly 24 years, in Puri and also in the north-east where the Vaishnava movement under Srimant Sankardev derives its inspiration from Sri Chaitanya’s teachings.
• Introduced into the Bhakti milieu, several forms of devotion, especially in the form of sankirtans or divine singing.
• Promoted the development of regional language and heralded a distinct repertoire of vocabulary especially in Bengali. The development of regional languages including Odia, Manipuri, etc. were also influenced by Sri Chaitanya’s teachings and after him, by his disciples.
• His state of divine ecstasy and Bhakti influenced dance performance with emphasis on Radha-Krishna folklore became the template of several classical dance forms such as Odissi, Kathak, Manipuri and Sattriya.

Despite these remarkable innovations, Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu kept the spirit of the Bhakti movement intact and ensured that its basic tenets like devotion to one god, values of love, compassion and service to man and also its inclusive nature were not diluted and it is due a judicious mix of re-orientation and preservation that he made-he became a leading light of the Bhakti movement in India.

Answer : The British were masters of territory in nearly every available continent during the 18th to 20th century. And they began the practice of taking indentured labourers who were essentially peasants taken from India on contracts which bid that they work a specific number of years for the British with the guarantee of freedom afterwards. They did this because–

• New colonies of the British were sometimes unoccupied or occupied by tribes unsuited as agricultural labour. Indian peasants with their history of farming knowledge were ideally suited for the job.
• Abolition of slavery in 1833 led to increased demand for legitimate sources of labour in colonies, especially those in the West Indies which was sourced from India.
• Prior knowledge of Indians with regards to crops suited to the British demands. Sugarcane, Tea, Indigo, etc. were cultivated by Indians in South and East Africa, Jamaica and Trinidad.
• And, demand for migration out of India, mainly on account of joblessness and famine could also be another reason.

These indentured labourers have, in some ways, managed to preserve their cultural identity and this can be seen by the spread of their religious and cultural habits. Worship of Murugan (a south Indian god) in Malay Peninsula spread of Hinduism and Sikhism in Africa and the Americas and recognition of Tamil as an official language in countries like Sri Lanka and Singapore.

However, at the same time, these people, as they have been residing in other countries for a long time, also led to a synthesis of values and emergence of an unique cultural identity like the evolution of the Creole language spoken in Mauritius, Indian imagery being reflected in the cuisine, names and festivals of the people of the region today and their close ties to and recognition of their mother country while at the same time maintaining their distinct cultural identity.

• The most glorious period of ancient India was the the Gupta dynasty.
• They ruled large parts of northern India.
• Their rule started from early 4th century CE to mid-6th century CE.
• The Gupta monarchs were famous for their gold coins.
• They also issued silver coins.
• Due to the abundance of gold coins, Gupta period is regarded as the ‘Rain of Gold’.
• The gold coins of that period depicted the ruling monarch on the obverse and carried legends with the figure of a goddess on the reverse.
• In many coins, Samudragupta was depicted as carrying an axe.

The coins of Kumaragupta I (c. 415-450 CE) depicted him riding an elephant and killing a lion. Another very interesting image of Samudragupta depicted him as playing a ‘veena’, a stringed musical instrument. There are also some instances of Gupta coins which were jointly issued by the king and the queen.

Reasons for the fall:

• After the fall of the mighty Gupta dynasty in the mid-6th century CE, several smaller states came into existence in India.
• They included Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, the Maukahris in the Kannauj province, the later Guptas, the Maitrikas of Vallabhi and Sasanka of Bengal (Gauda).
• The Deccan and the far South too were dominated by different dynasties.
• This period is regarded as a period of feudalization of the Indian economy characterized by the ‘decline of trade and commerce’.
• The prosperous days of Indo-Roman trade were gone.
• Under these circumstances, the economy of India became more agrarian and land-centric. The scarcity of money, in the form of coins of course, was another major feature of this age.
• Although few states were compelled to issue some debased and devalued copper and silver coins for the purpose of trade. Thus, there was not any absolute absence of coins.
• There were certainly some coins in circulation in the market. But these coins were no match with the coins of the Guptas.

Conclusion

• Gold coins became very rare in this period.
• They were not integral parts of the economy.
• Economy was characterized by the declining trade.
• The coins of this period also lacked the aesthetic quality and precision of the earlier period.
• They remained mere imitation of the earlier age.

• A State has sovereignty over an area of territory and the people within it.
• Culture on the other hand is more related with the term Nation.
• A nation consists of a distinct population of people.
• People are bound together by a common culture, history, and traditions, specific geographic region.
• Religions, beliefs, customs, traditions, languages all are the parts of culture.
• Different religious beliefs in different parts of India, languages, influences have ended up creating different nations in a single nation.
• India is called as ‘nation in making’ owing to various cultural diversity that made many analysts to conclude that regions form cultural units rather than states.

Reasons for the development of Cultural Units rather than States are as follows—

• India has an extremely diverse geography.
• Mountain people in Kashmir, desert people of Rajasthan and the plains people of Tamil Nadu eat different foods, dress differently.
• Geography plays a large part in our diversity.
• Our core culture - Hinduism - is extremely accommodating of diversity. When waves of Jews, Zoroastrians, early Christians and Muslims arrived in our shores we were not defensive. We not just accepted them, we also created a dozen variations of our culture - Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and so on.
• We could live with 1000s of contradictory beliefs without being defensive or get an urge to move to a single faith.

Conclusion

• From the above we can see that there is a propensity to develop cultural units more than that of a political unit.
• But we also cannot deny the fact that the country has been politically decentralised based on constitutional provisions that give them autonomy and also authority to legislate and administer in their domains like Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.

Answer : During Buddha’s time, great kings and religious leaders often had their ashes placed into urns and buried in mounds made from piled earth called Stupas, which by the 3rd century BCE started being built with bricks and mortar.

The sculptures on the stupas generally depict the birth-stories of the Gautama Buddha, also called the Jatakas such as the scenes on the Bharhut sculptures or the Amaravati stupas, which represent a plethora of folk themes and legends relating to the life of Gautama Shakyamuni.

Some of the Bharhut scenes include the dream of Maya illustrating the descent of a Bodhisattva in the form of an elephant into the mother’s womb, the defeat of Mara, Gautama’s Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the worship of Gautama’s hair-locks by celestial beings, the visits of king Ajatashatru and of Prasenjit etc.

Buddhist art reflects very faithfully all the important aspects of Buddhism. It also contains representations of the sacred stupas and other motifs to indicate the presence of Gautam Buddha symbolically.

The main structure of the Great Stupa consisted of a flattened hemispherical cupola or dome called an anda which symbolizes latent creative power. It was also intended as an architectural replica of the infinite dome of heaven, representing the cycle of death and rebirth.

The harmika, located at the summit of the anda, symbolized the Nirvana and its resemblance to a sacrificial altar was of particular significance, as attainment of nirvana required the sacrifice of the self and the world.

In primitive Buddhism, Gautama Sakyamuni has been regarded as an ideal human being and hence the early Buddhist art of Bharhut, Sanchi, Bodh-Gaya and Amaravati and other places show no anthropomorphic representation of Buddha in conformity with Buddha’s atheistic philosophy.

His presence is indicated by means of an empty throne, or a Bodhi tree, or a pair of foot-prints, or a dharma-chakra, each of them symbolizing one or the other event of his life.

It is perhaps only in Buddhism that a particular structure has been recommended by its founder for worship and salvation, for the Stupa enables the worshiper to not only think of the Buddha as an imminent reality, but also epitomizes his enlightenment and nirvana.

Answer : Emperor Krishnadeva Raya was not only a great administrator of the Vijajayanagara Empire, but also a great patron of literature and was known as Abhinava Bhoja and Andhra Bhoja. Himself being a scholar, he wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and a Sanskrit play, Jambavati Kalyana. During his rule, many Telugu, Sanskrit, Kannada and Tamil poets enjoyed the patronage of the emperor.

The period of the empire has become known as ‘Prabandha Period’, because of the quality of the prabandha literature produced during that time.

As a patron of art and Telugu literature Sri Krishnadevaraya was unsurpassed. His period was undoubtedly the golden age of the Telugu literature. His court was famous as Bhuvanavijayam and eight literary luminaries popularly known as Ashtadiggajas adorned his court. The eight poets were Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu, Pingali Surana, Ramarajabhushanudu, and Tenali Ramakrishnudu and constituted the eight pillars of his literary assembly.

Among them Allasani Peddana, the author of ‘Manu Charitramu’ was the greatest. He was known as Andhra Kavita Pitamaha. Nandi Thimmanna, who was famous for his works in Telugu and Kannada wrote Parijathapaharanamu. Krishnadevaraya also asked the Thimmanna to complete the Kannada Mahabharatha started by Kumara Vyasa.

Sri Krishnadevaraya wrote the Amuktamalyada in Telugu, in which he beautifully describes the pangs of separation suffered by Andal (one of the twelve bhakti era Alwars) for her lover Lord Vishnu.

He patronized Kannada poets Mallanarya who wrote Veerasaivamrita, Bhavachintaratna, and Satyendra Cholakathe, Chatu Vittalanatha who wrote Bhagavatha, and Timmanna Kavi who wrote a eulogy of his king in Krishnaraya Bharata.

Vyasatirtha, the great saint from Mysore belonging to the Madhwa order of Udupi had been his Rajguru who wrote many songs in praise of his devoted king. Krishnadevarayana Dinachari in Kannada represents a recently discovered work. The record highlights the contemporary society during Krishnadevaraya’s time in his personal diary.

Krishnadevaraya patronized Tamil poet Haridasa. In Sanskrit, Vyasatirtha wrote Bhedojjivana, Tatparyachandrika, Nyayamrita (a work directed against Advaita philosophy), and Tarkatandava. Krishnadevaraya, an accomplished scholar, wrote Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya, and Rasamanjari and Jambavati Kalyana.

Answer : Globalization has brought about a paradoxical dichotomy when it comes to cultural diversity – a corporate dominated monoculture where nations and cultural groups alike are deprived of autonomy and identity; and another of a vibrant celebration of pluralism in which various cultural groups are in direct and harmonious contact with each other. Hence Globalization provides both positive and negative influences on cultural diversity which can have far reaching impacts.

Negative Impacts:

Loss of individualism and group identity promote a homogeneous set of values and beliefs causing cultural and linguistic subversion of the lesser dominant cultures. Often, the more dominant cultures determine the technology that will be offered up to the masses.

The multinational corporations promoting consumer culture and exploitation of workers and markets are adversely impacting the local cultural influences, by allowing neo-colonization.

The present education, legal and power structures reflect western ideas and philosophies which are assimilated into other cultures, which may further impact intellectual property and cultural rights.

Global access to information has facilitated access to cultural property like songs, dance, rituals and other cultural artifacts. Misrepresenting or plagiarizing cultural property is a heinous crime which is becoming more difficult to prevent and prosecute appropriately.

Positive Impacts:

The global technology can be empowering for various cultures as technology acts as a medium which gives distinctive voice to self-identities and allows cultures to promote awareness leading to greater public acceptance.

When cultures are in control of their own public images they are better equipped to manage and represent their images of cultural property such as their artifacts, signs and symbols appropriately without misrepresentation.

Social media avenues revolutionized information sharing and exchanges and communication technology provides ability to foster and strengthen relationships over miles creating global villages.

Globalization has privatized and commercialized knowledge forcing a knowledge community to develop which can act as a driving force when it comes to national and international political, social and economic development.

Answer : Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations lost their link with their ancient culture because of loss of their indigenous religion and cultural practices. Their traditions were replaced by other traditions, in fact the religions that existed during ancient times have almost replaced by other religions. Egypt, Mesopotamia (Iraq) were not inhabited by Muslims in ancient times. Similarly Greece whose ancient name was Yunan was also not inhabited by Christians. In ancient Greece, there were different types of Gods like God of wine etc. Now a day’s Christianity prevails there. Religious practices are considered to be strong practices having the capability to survive centuries passing on from one generation to another with some modifications albeit. So, when people worshiping gods and performing associated rituals could not survive, survival of civilizations rendered impossible. While on the other hand, Indian civilization was so structured that religion was deeply ingrained in the lifestyle and actions of people and it was not possible to separate religion from culture.

The Indus civilization is marked with certain outstanding features. One such feature is Harappan religion. Harappan seals have revealed worshipping of a deity believed to be a precursor of Shiva in Hindu religion, also there existed a cult worshipping mother goddess which is believed to be a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. Besides socio-cultural-religious practices, ancient Indian civilization continues to guide town planning, measurement systems etc. identified with Harappan Culture, to present day Indian civilization signalling a continuous link of present to its past. Indus sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi reveals high level of town planning skills. Further, Indus civilization’s centralised (as interpreted by some historians) governance structure based on uniformity of artefacts such as pottery seals, weights and bricks cab be thought of inspiring Indian civilization polity structure all through the centuries. Additionally, Indus civilization dependence on trade and transportation are also noticeable and linkable.

Indian’s followed Vedic culture in ancient times which included worshiping gods such as Indra worship, personification of natural forces was prevalent in those times, performed certain rituals, practiced certain codes etc. Now if we observe the religious practices in the present day India, we will find that some Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni etc. are still worshipped. In addition to this, personification of natural forces such as worshipping river, mountain, tree etc is still widely prevalent. Similarly, we still perform Vedic Yajna which used to be prevalent in ancient times. Moreover, some lifestyle practices such as following yoga and ayurveda have also been borrowed from our past traceable to ancient times. These still command lots of respect and value in our society which is growing and spreading to other parts of the world.

Along with these the Varna system and caste system combined with marriage system which developed in ancient times are still preserved and practiced. If we go to Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece you won’t find even a trace of ancient culture. But here in India, people even now have preserved Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharta and books written by Chanakya, Charak, Patanjali etc. It is not only about preserving but people still have belief in the contents of those books. We can easily find people reciting verses of Ramayana, Mahabharata etc.

Not only this, but, the systems of philosophy that developed during ancient India still influences the psyche of Indians. For example, the concept of moksha, purushartha, samskars, still some way or the other guides individual’s action’s in India.

In addition to religious practices, the sartorial way and food habits of ancient India, is also practiced in India till date. Women still wear ‘saris’ and men wear ‘dhoti kurta’. Also wearing of adorable ornaments that we found during ancient India depicted through various idols and paintings can be seen as gracing the charm of present day Indian women.

Another important element of Indian civilization is its quality of acceptance, assimilation and space for different cultures popularly known as cultural diversity but retaining unity allowing healthy interaction of different people and thus sailing through times with some modification while retaining its original character. This indicates unity in diversity. This feature has allowed ancient India civilization to sail through all the ages by assimilating different culture through its tolerant nature and therefore moving forward.

Therefore, by upkeeping its core essence of spiritualism and tolerance combined with flexibility, even under the impact of foreign invaders ancient Indian civilization never lost its character and thus preserved their cultural identity till date.

Answer : Art forms were used by prehistoric people to express their everyday life one such art form was rock cute cave architecture. Rock cut architecture is one of the forms of architecture seen in caves. Rock cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving out solid natural rock. The Earliest caves employed humans were natural caves used by local inhabitants for a variety of purposes, such as shrines and shelters. Evidence suggests that caves were first occupied and altered during the Mesolithic period.

During Mesolithic period rock paintings were created in many parts of Ganges valley. In these paintings, everyday life events were depicted. The paintings were used to express the mental thoughts and also might be used as a medium of communication. The paintings also exhibited the socio-economic life of that time, thereby indicating the sense of observation these people possess.

Example of Mesolithic rock cut architecture includes the Bhimbetka rock cut cave, which contains many such paintings. These paintings depict hunting scene, dancing, animals such as horse and elephants, popular religious symbols and rituals also occur frequently.

The paintings were very diverse in nature, for example, animals were drawn in many forms and with varied styles. This also speaks about their love for different techniques and innovation. Moreover, usage of colors also speaks about their aesthetic sense. Along with these depictions, the manner in which they were drawn matches the beauty and elegance of modern day painting to some extent. Special attention was being paid to body proportion size to correctly depict the animal or man which exhibits sense of perfection.

Although, these paintings may appear to represent higher level of concern or appreciation for beauty, even then their aesthetic sense cannot be compared with the modern paintings. Historian and researchers have a divided opinion whether these paintings were really artistic expressions or they were something else.

For example, these paintings may be form of expressions that comes spontaneously. Bathroom graffiti and scribbling done by people when they make a phone call or involve in other activities or just when they find a pen or a paper together fall under this category.

In fact, there are painters who have admitted that there was no purpose behind their paintings, and they reported that they felt like painting, so they did. In such spontaneous expression appreciation of beauty may be an accidental phenomenon and not an intentional one. Therefore, it does not highlight the aesthetic sense of the paintings of Mesolithic age.

Whereas, modern paintings are carefully drawn after recognizing beauty of surroundings or object under consideration. They are not the by-product of some other activity, instead they are the exclusive work of the artists, who draws them intentionally and present his/ her mental thoughts in elegant and adorable artistic expression depicted in their paintings. What best can be said is that, Mesolithic age paintings serves as one of the sources of inspiration of modern paintings and may acts as their successor.

Answer : The diversity in India is unique. Being a large country with large population, India presents endless varieties of physical features and cultural patterns. It is the land of many languages it is only in India people professes all the major religions of the world. In short, India is “the epitome of the world”. The vast population is composed of people having diverse creeds, customs and colours. There are many cultural elements of diversity in India, which are also significant in building a national identity. Some of these are discussed below:

Linguistic Diversity: The music video “Ek Sur”, more popularly known as “Mile Sur Mera Tumhara”, was released on India’s Independence Day in 1988. It was a small contribution to the country’s herculean post-independence task of building a unified national identity. The song’s lyrics were written in all 14 languages recognised by the constitution at that time. Playing off India’s many cultures, the performers sing: “When your song and my song meet, they become our song.” India is rightly described as a polyglot country - a country of many languages. According to census of 2001, there are 1365 rationalized mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 122 major languages and the 22 Scheduled languages. However, it is important to note that there is no state in the Indian Union that is monolingual in terms of mother tongue. The existence of Muslim native Kannada, Marathi-speakers along with Hindu and Christian counterparts shows that language’s culture is suffused with other religious identities.

Plurality of Religions: One of the remarkable achievements of Indian civilization lies in its tolerance and accommodation of diverse identities as well as the facilitation of a creative synthesis of these identities. This has been one of the major factors in the continued survival and resilience of Indian civilization. Indian society is multi-religious. While the state is secular, the people of India belong to different religions. Apart from the tribal societies, many of whom still live in the pre-religious state of animism and magic, the Indian population consists of the Hindus (84.1%), Muslims (9.8%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.79%), Buddhists (0.74%), Jains (0.46%) and Zoroastrians (0.13%), practicing their respective faiths and living together in harmony peacefully.

Food: India’s national cuisine is something that can only be defined by its indefinable nature. The remarkable diversity and variety of foods it encompasses isn’t unlike the country itself-and that’s what makes it in many ways so appealing. The cultural, religious and regional diversity of India is reflected in its cuisine as well- be it Punjabi food with extra spices, Moghulai biryani, or South Indian idli & chutneys. Indian food is known for its large assortment of dishes and its liberal use of herbs and spices. Cooking styles vary from region to region.

Ethnicity of India: With a population of more than 1,210 million as accounted by the 2011 population census, India is a colourful canvas portraying a unique assimilation of ethnic groups displaying varied cultures and religions. In fact, this uniqueness in the ethnicity of the country is the factor that makes it different from other nations. Moreover, the vastness of India’s nationalism, accounting to a plethora of cultural extravaganza, religions, etc. is the reason that the country is seen more as a seat for a major world civilization than a mere nation-state. With the governance of 36 different states and union territories in the country, there has originated a sense of regionalism amongst the various parts, with different states displaying different cultures, which although eventually fuse through a common bond to showcase a national cultural identity.

Plurality and multiplicity characterize Indian society and culture. India has accommodated and assimilated various outside elements into its growing culture. However, it has never been a ‘melting pot’ in which all differences got dissolved and a uniform identity was created. Rather, India is a shining example of a ‘salad bowl’ in which different elements retain their individual identities and yet, together, they form a distinct recipe.

Answer : Excavation of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of Indus Valley Civilization proved that it has influenced urban civilization with its town planning and evidence also showed that it has egalitarian society. This Indus Valley Civilization has some influence in the present day urbanization and socio-economic practices.

Indus Valley Civilization has given many inputs to the present day urbanization ranging from the famous covered drainage and sewerage pattern of disposing solid and liquid waste for a hygienic society, which is evident with the present urban planning system.

Along with this they also provide planning of city infrastructure, where in Harappan civilization the roads were cut at 90 degrees sharp and it followed lane pattern for wheeled vehicles with pathway for walking. Streets in IVC town planning were lit with street lights for better access of roads in night.

Contemporary Building styles have got some major inputs from Indus Civilization where building materials used in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro is not by stone rather they used the burnt brick for the construction of houses. The building structure in IVC can be categorized as dwelling houses, large buildings and public baths. Where as in the present day it is slum and skyscrapers that differentiate poor and rich, in IVC it was dwelling houses and large building.

On the socio-cultural front IVC was egalitarian and though non religious, evidence show they worshiped lord Pashupathi even in present society people worship gods. Economy of IVC was mainly driven by trade and mercantilism and also had relation with other contemporary civilizations like present day international trade relations between nations and interstate trade relations.

There is presence of seals and terracotta figurine was used in IVC by merchant for stamping purpose which is very similar to the current technology of barcode access to product. Thus, Indus valley civilization has not only had advanced thinking and implementation but also provided valuable inputs for future generation too.

Answer : Gandhara School of art is distinct from the iconic tradition of early Indian sculpture and the anthropomorphic tradition of Greco-Roman art. The Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the head and heart of an Indian.

The Gandhara region attained its peak of prosperity in the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE), when it became one of the strongholds of Buddhism, and developed an advanced urban life where the Gandhara art flourished. In the 1st century CE, Parthian and Roman merchants brought in the art and culture of their respective lands and local Hellenistic art tradition, and Buddhist missionaries the elements of Buddhist art. This last factor was developed (in Amaravati, Mathura, and Gandhara) into a synthesis combining eastern Hellenistic and Bactrian styles with the Indian art of anthropomorphic representations of the Buddhist personages.

Gandhara art was flourished in North western undivided India and eastern Afganistan from first century B.C. till 7th century AD. Gandhara in 4th century AD was under the reign of Ashoka and it is the biggest centre of Buddhism.

Gandhara School of art got influenced by Roman and Greek during the Kushans period. Kushans had intimate contact with Rome and Greece. In their interpretation of the Buddhist legends, the Gandhara artists leaned, heavily on classical Roman art with plentiful of Greek mythology such as angels with garlands, Tritons with the fish tails and horse’s forefoot, Centaurs with human heads, arms and the body, spiral and flowing lines, scrolls and stuccos. The result is that Buddha with curly hair, muscles and moustaches. Gautam is made to look like the youthful Apollo, the Greek sun-god symbolising beauty and strength dressed in loose attire.

Gandhara artist made a lasting contribution to the Greco-Buddhist art by striking a balance between the real and the ideal, the sensuous and the sacred, between evolution and ethics, between a smiling and a suffering Buddha, between a standing and a seated Bodhisatva.

Answer : Taxila University flourished from 600 BC to 500 AD, in the kingdom of Gandhar. 68 subjects were taught at this university and the minimum entry age, as ancient texts show, was 16. At one stage, it had 10,500 students including those from Babylon, Greece, Syria, and China. Different streams of subjects were taught ranging from literature, music, dance to medicine, astronomy, mathematics and commerce.

Though it had many feature of university many historians are not considering Taxila University in the modern sense as Nalanda University, which functioned from 500 to 1300 AD. According to scholars, supported by some evidence, Taxila University is a seat of Vedic learning and this institution is significant for Buddhist since it is believed that Mahayana sect of Buddhism took shape there.

Taxila University had some famous scholars like Kautilya, who helped in consolidating Chandra Gupta Maurya Empire and gave famous Arthasasthra. It is not being recognized as university in modern sense because teachers in Taxila University did not have official membership of particular college and university, the university didn’t have proper lecture halls and residential quarters for students and teachers, whereas it was well established in Nalanda University and it provided good infrastructure facility for students.

The most striking evidence of not being considering Taxila as modern university is because it is considered as a place of religious worship than a place of education for students.

Though there are contradicting opinion exists among scholars, still there are some historians believe Taxila as world’s first university, it produced greatest personalities like Ayurvedic healer Charaka, who studied at Taxila University and had some famous scholars like Kautilya, Panini, Jivak and Vishnu Sharma.

Answer : In India during the medieval period there were two reform movements that took place one is bhakti movement and other is Sufi movement. These two movements are not only religious reforms but also help in establishing harmony between Hindu and muslim community.

Sufism, as a reform movement laid strong emphasis on free thoughts and liberal ideas. The movement aimed at progress in their own spirituality and to serve mankind by bringing universal brotherhood and humanitarian ideals. For this Sufi movement used poems as a medium to propagate the ideals, where as famous sufi poets like Amir Khusrau and Malik Muhammad Jayasi composed poems in praise of Sufi principles.

Like Bakti movement, Sufism interpreted religion as “love of god” and service to humanity. Famous priest in Sufi movement also preached and contributed for Universal love, where they preached highest form of devotion to god can be done service to mankind. Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood.

Both the preachers of Bhakti movement and Sufi condemned caste system, gave equal importance to women in society and gave people a simple religion without complicated rituals. But in reality these qualities were remain limited to small pockets of society. It could not modify the religious practices and outward structure of Hindu and Muslim societies. Though it had followed the middle path it failed to modify religious ideas and practices of Hindu and Muslim. This sufi movement is not only failed in bring Hindu-Muslim harmony but also on the ground that it further divided muslims, where in later period of Sufi movement different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its own pir (guide) and on the whole this movement made dehumanisation of Islam.

Answer : Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years c. 600 BCE to 300 CE. This collection contains 2381 poems composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous.

Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic during the early Chola period. The culture is best described as an amalgam of the Dravidians and Aryans. The stories of Mahab-harata and Ramayana were well known to the Tamil people, shown by the claims of some kings to have fed both the opposing army in the Mahabharata War. The claim is that Shibi, who gave his own flesh to save a dove, as a Chola is obviously influenced by northern legends.

Sangam poems say that in the Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lay one can produce enough grain to feed seven. Thus shows that the land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food.

Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war was not uncommon. The sphere of the state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm.

The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the King in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of the later Cholas where the Emperor was kept much away from contact with the lay people. The kings often took the field in person in battles and if the king was killed or wounded in battle, his army immediately gave up the fight and surrendered.

As the trade increased the wartime activities too witnessed a growth. Sangam literature depicts an organized form of trade which included both inland and foreign waterways. The maritime activities flourished so well that the chola dynasty traded with Roman empire through Erythrean sea.

Answer : Lord Shiva is also known as Nataraj, the Dancing God. This divine art form is performed by Lord Shiva and his divine consort Goddess Parvati. The dance performed by Lord Shiva is known as Tandava. Shiva’s Tandava is a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation, preservation and dissolution. Tandava depicts his violent nature as the destroyer of the universe.

The Dance of Bliss’ symbolizes the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction, as well as the daily rhythm of birth and death. The dance is a pictorial allegory of the five principle manif-estations of eternal energy creation, destruction, preservation, salvation, and illusion.

Answer : The Imperial Chola rulers of Tanjore developed the Dravidian style of temple architecture almost to perfection. The two magnificent temples at Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram in Tiruchirapalli District built in early 11th century A.D. shows the best of Chola art.

The Brihadeswara or Rajarajeswara Temple of Shiva in Tanjore built by Rajaraja Chola in 1010 A.D. is the largest and highest of Chola temples and stands as a symbol of Chola greatness.

Constructed in granite, the main structure of the temple has a square base which, lofty shikhara, temple from the top of the base is covered with exquisite sculptures and mouldings. The gopuram on the entrance gates are decorated with beautiful sculptures.

The temple Shiva at Gangaikonda Chola-puram built by Rajendra 1 Chola (1018 to 1033 A.D.) is another line piece of temple architecture. Massive grandeur and huge structures decorated with minute sculptures are characteristics of Chola art. A new development was the addition of a gateway or gopuram to the walled enclosure of the temple.

Answer : India having strong religious foundations, religious themes are often reflected in Indian art forms ranging from music, dance, paintings, sculpture, cloth and jewelery designs etc. Krishna is one of the main Gods of India whose stories are reflected in India's most well known and read epic-Mahabharata and the Bhagwad Gita. Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant or young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana. Indian art often depicts and tells the stories of Krishna often called Rasleela. The flute playing theme has especially been important among all the stories of Krishna depicted through Indian art because music tends to evoke strong emotions in humans. Krishna is often portrayed playing the flute to symbolize his involvement in human affairs and feelings. The flute also represents the spiritual spine. The holes on the flute represent the 7 Chakra centers. Each note corresponds to a specific energy center which manifests our experience.

Answer : Rasarnava is a tantric medical work assigned to 1200 A.D was written by an unknown author in the form of a dialogue between Bhairava and his consort Parvati. It deals with transmutation of substances of base metals into noble metals rasas (mercury and some important mineral, aparasa (inferior minerals) metals and various means of processing them.

Answer : The Indian musical instruments are traditionally classified into four major categories: Tara Vadya or string instruments, Sushira Vadya or wind instruments, Avanaddha Vadya or membrane covered instruments and Ghana Vadya or solid percussion instruments (e.g. ghatam, kartal, cymbals). Each instrument is further classified into different categories based on the mode of playing.

Tara Vadya is further classified based on the mode of playing - by friction with a bow (e.g. violin, sarangi, esraj, dilruba etc); and by plucking the strings (e.g. veena, sitar, sarod, guitar, mandolin etc).

Sushira Vadya further classified into two - those where wind is supplied by some mechanical means like harmonium and those where the wind is supplied by the breath of the performer which is further divided as mouth blown (clarinet, shehnai) and nose blown (flute).

Avanaddha Vadya comprises of all per-cussion instruments. It is further divided into five types-played by hand (like mridangam), those played using sticks, played partly by hand and partly by stick, self struck (like damaru) and one side is struck and the other side stroked (like perumal madu drum).

Answer : Fire in Zoroastrianism symbolizes divinity. According to parsis, fire, the seventh creation of ahura mazda permeated in to all other creations made them dynamic and brought them to life.Athra (fire) gives clear guidance and help to the faithful by illuminating the path of asha (truth). Athra just as it burns and destroys the physical impurity, in the same way it can remove spiritual uncleanliness or sin. Finally, at the end of the time it is through fire, that profit will be bestowed on righteous and the wicked will be destroyed.

Answer : Bagurumba dance also called as 'butterfly dance' is a spring time dance of the Bodos of Assam inhabited in areas of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur districts. The dance is the usually performed during Bwishagu festival of the Bodos in the Bishuba Sankranti or in Mid-April. The Baguru-mba dance is instituted only to appease "Bathou", the supreme god of the Bodos.

Answer : Moatsu vs Yemshe festivals of Nagaland

Both Moatsu and the Yemshe festivals are related to agricultural activities of Nagaland. The differences between the two are as follows:

• Moatsu is celebrated in the month of May for three days (1 to 3 May) whereas Yemshe starts in the last week of September and culminates on the 5th of Oct.
• Moatsu is the festival of Ao tribe and Yemshe is of Pochury tribe.
• Moatsu is celebrated after sowing is done in the fields but yemshe is celebrated to welcome the new harvest.
• The chief attraction of Moatsu is Sangpangtu during which, a fire is lit and men and women sit around it. They wear their best attire, and the women serve meat and wine. The chief attraction of Yemshe is the Sanctification Feast.

Losar vs Khan festivals of Arunachal Pradesh

Losar and Khan are the merry making festivals of Arunachal Pradesh. The basic differences between the two are:

• Losar is one of the important festivals of Monpas whereas Khan is mainly a Miji festival of Arunachal Pradesh.
• Losar is celebrated at the end of February or the early March whereas there is no definite date for the celebration of Khan.
• Losar is celebrated to welcome the New Year but Khan is celebrated to bring together the people of the tribe.
• Losar is more or less confined to Tawang region whereas Khan is mostly celebrated in the East and West Kameng districts.

1. Bhand Pather: one of the most popular forms of entertainment in the Kashmir valley is a traditional folk theatre usually based on a satirical theme that is usually laced with wit and dry humor. A beautiful blend of song, dance and drama makes up this fascinating folk theater.
2. Swang: is a popular folk dance drama or folk theatre form in Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. It incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry accompanied by song and dialogue.
3. Maach: of Madhya Pradesh is a folk theatre form presented largely through traditional song and dances. Men portray all the characters and the themes are generally historical or borrowed from folk legends about kings and warriors.
4. Bhaona: is a dance drama popular in the state of Assam. Sankardeva, a great reformer and scholar, is known as the Father of Bhaona. It is performed after the harvest of summer crops in Kerala. In 2010 it was included in UNESCO intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.
5. Mudiyettu: is a ritualistic dance-drama presented in Bhadrakaali temples in South and Central Kerala. It is based on the Puranic story of Darikavadham, the killing of the demon Darika.
6. Dashavatar: is the most developed theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions. The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity.
7. Yakshagana: It is a dance form in which folk arts are portrayed through dances. It was started by the artists of Vijaynagar Empire (14-15 century).

Answer : Different styles of unglazed pottery: Unglazed pottery is the oldest form of pottery practiced in India, which has developed with time, offering a wide range to its customers. The unglazed variety is also a finer version. Most of the discovered unglazed pieces have combinations of black and red coloring. Most commonly, black and red pottery vessels have a red interior and a black exterior. There are basically three types of unglazed pottery.

First is the paper thin pottery, wherein biscuit colored pottery is decorated with incised patterns. This is a very fine paper thin pottery called 'kagzi' produced in Kutch, Kanpur, Alwar and in many other northern parts of the country.

Next utilizes the scrafito technique, wherein the pot is polished and painted with red and white slips along with intricate patterns, while the outline is incised.

The third is highly polished pottery, which is given strong, deeply incised, stylized patterns of arabesques.

Unglazed pottery is practiced throughout the country, with each region having its own speciality. Black pottery is yet another form of unglazed pottery, which resembles the Harappan pottery style.

Answer : The Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eleven other Indian dance forms:

1. Bharatanatyam - Tamil Classical Dance
2. Odissi - Odisha Classical Dance
3. Gaudiya Nritya - Bengal Classical Dance
4. Kuchipudi - Telugu Classical Dance
5. Mohiniaattam - Kerala Classical Dance
6. Sattriya - Asamese Classical Dance
7. Kathakali - Malayalam Classical Dance
8. Kathak - North Indian Classical Dance
9. Manipuri- Manipur Classical Dance
10. Koodiyattam - Kerala Classical Dance
11. Yakshagana - Karnataka Classical Dance

Answer : ‘Madhubani’ art and ‘Manjusha’ art are the traditional and indigenous art form of Bihar. There is a matriarchal dominance over both the art form. Nature and celestial bodies like the sun and moon are the common themes of both the art form. There are certain distinctive features, which gives uniqueness to both. ‘Madhubani’ painting are characterised by bright and bold use of colours like yellow, black, blue, red, green, white and orange, on the other hand, manjusha painters use only three colors red, yellow and green on a black background. The most prominent features of ‘madhubani’ painting are double line borders, ornate floral patterns, abstract figures of deities and human figures with bulging eyes and a jolting nose and birds and animal motifs. Its theme are mainly revolves around Rama and Sita, but other deities like Durga, Krishna, Lakshmi and Saraswati are also favourite subjects of painters. Apart from this, the holy Tulsi plant and traditional geometric pattern are also depicted. These paintings were made on walls to celebrate social happening, mainly wedding.

Manjusha painting revolves around the folklore of Bihula-Vishari. In the manjusha painting human being are depicted in the form of English letter ‘x’ with limbs drawn with linear and uniform bold lines. The main characters in the art form are projected with prominent ears and with big eyes. Manjusha painters use wavy lines for decoration.

Rajasthani school of painting is marked by bold drawing, vibrant colors. Its main centers are Mewar, Marwar, Kishangarh, Bundi, Jaipur etc. They use bright colors like red and yellow. Feminine beauty like her lotus eyes, waving hairs, and thin waist rounded and long fingers and grace is well portrayed. Love scenes of Radha and Krishna and rajput grandeur and glory have been precisely painted. Living portrayal of natural beauty, themes drawn from the Ramayan, the Mahabharat, and the Bhagavata are beautifully depicted in their paintings.

Pahari School of painting developed in the foot hill of Punjab, Garhwal and Jammu. This school is different from Rajasthan School of painting. This school is famous for beautiful flowing lines and brilliant colors. The theme of court paintings revolve around the literary, mythical and secular themes. The painters are great lovers of nature and depict nature with care and love in their painting. Its main centres are Basholi, Guler and Kangra etc. In Basholi, a painter portrays flat background with simplified forms of trees and faces in profile and use bold lines and brilliant colors. The painters of Guler depict women in the absence of their lovers in their painting and the painters of Kangra mainly revolve around the theme of feminine beauty and grace.

1. Jnanpith Award: Jnanpith award is the most prestigious and highest literary award, given for the best creative literary writing by any Indian citizen in any of the languages includes in the VIII schedule of the Indian constitution.This award carries a cash award of Rs 5 lakh. Since 1982 this award has been given for the lifetime contribution of the writer, prior to that the award were given for a single work. The award is instituted in 1961, is the brainchild of late Smt.Rama Jain, the first president of Bharatiya Jnanpith.
2. Sahitya Akademy Award: Sahitya Akademi Award is a literary honor, annually conferred by Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy of Letters, on writers of outstanding works in any of the twenty-four major Indian languages including English language. This award instituted in 1954, comprises a plaque and a cash prize of Rs. 50,000 (in 2009 Govt. of India has announced to increase the amount to Rs. 100,000). This is the second highest literary honour conferred by the Govt of India. The award’s purpose is to recognize and promote excellence in Indian writing and also acknowledge new trends. The annual process of selecting awardees goes on for the preceding twelve months.
3. Vyas Samman: The Vyas Samman is a literary award, annually conferred by K.K.Birla foundation. The award instituted in 1991. It carries a cash prize of Rs 2.5 lakh. This award is conferred on the best creative literary work in Hindi language, which has been published in the last 10 years.
4. Saraswati Samman: This award is named after Indian goddess Saraswati, the goddess of learning. This is the highest literary award for outstanding prose or poetry literary works in any Indian languages that is included in the eighth schedule of Indian constitution and have been published in the previous ten years by a panel of scholars and former award winners. It carries a cash prize of Rs five lakh. The Saraswati Samman was instituted in 1991 by the K. K. Birla Foundation.

Answer : The salient features of the important folk dances of Central India are

Gaur Dance: Originated in Madhya Pradesh, involves men wearing head-dresses, with stringed 'cowries' and plumes of peacock feathers and Women, ornamented with brass fillets and bead necklaces around their tattooed bodies.

Muria Dance 1. Performed by the Muria tribals of North Bastar area.

2. Starts with an invocation or prayer to the phallic deity of their tribe and the founder of the Ghotul institution.

3. The Muria dances can be of several kinds such as the Har Endanna, the Karsana, the Hulki etc. The Har Endanna dance, one of the popular forms is performed during marriages. The Karsana dance is performed for enjoyment. The Hulki dance is a very beautiful form of Muria dance wherein the boys move in circular fashion as the girls make way through them.

Saila Dance 1. In Chattisgarh popular among the people of Sarguja, Chhindwara and Betul districts. It is also known as Danda Nach or Dandar Pate in this region.

2. Saila dance is performed after the harvest season, mostly by young boys. It is a stick-dance, wherein the performers, standing in one leg each, support themselves to the person standing in front and forms a circle. Next everyone jumps together, by moving round and round. The dancers of the Saila dance usually wear pagdi and dhoti-kurta, with a towel or lungi to tie the waist.

Karma Dance 1. The Gonds and Baigas of Chhattisgarh and the Oraons of Madhya Pradesh.

2. Associated with the fertility cult.

3. Symbolizing the beginning of the spring season, the dance happens to take place just at the onset of the rainy season and also when it ends. Both women and men can be seen taking part in the dance enthusiastically. The men dancers in the group leap forward while the women performers bend down low to the ground.

4. The instruments that accompany the Karma dance consist of the Payri, the Chhalla, Thumki and Jhumki.

Kaksar Dance 1. Performed by people in hope of reaping a rich harvest and is popular among the Abhujmarias of Bastar.

2. Also presents a unique opportunity to boys and girls to choose their life partners.

The salient features of the important folk dances of Northern Eastern India are:

Naga Dances 1. Portray a sense of fun and zest during harvesting season of Naga tribes.

2. The use of an erect posture, with many movements of the legs and comparatively little use of the torso and shoulders.

Bihu 1. Assam in mid-April, during the harvesting time.

2. During the day, all young men and young girls gather and dance together (though they do not mix-up much), to the tunes of drums and pipes, along with love songs. The dances are performed either in circles or parallel rows.

Thang-ta & Dhol-Cholom 1.An evolution from the martial arts exercises encouraged by the kings of Manipur.

2. Exciting in nature and performed by young men holding swords and shields. One of the instruments that dominate is the drum.

3. Dhol Cholom, a drum dance, is one of the dances performed during Holi.

Nongkrem 1. To celebrate the remembrance of the evolution of Khasis and their indigenous democratic state called Hima, performed in Meghalaya, during autumn.

2. Captures the movements of everyday life as well as animals and birds.

Hajgiri 1. Tripura, the land of a large tribal population to appease the goddess Lakshmi.

2. Performed by young girls, who demonstrate a series of balancing skills, and uses instruments of its kind.

3. The compound of houses as dancing grounds.

Answer : Carnatic music is a system of music associated with the southern part of the Indian subcontinent, Hindustani music, which emerged as a distinct form due to Persian and Islamic influences in North India

Similarities

1. Carnatic is one of two main sub-genres of Indian classical music that evolved from ancient Hindu traditions; the other sub-genre being Hindustani music, which emerged as a distinct form due to Persian and Islamic influences in North India.
2. Although there are stylistic differences, the basic elements of œruti, swara, râga and tala form the foundation of improvisation and composition in both Carnatic and Hind-ustani music.
3. Originating in the Vedic period, it is a tradition that has been evolving from the 12th century Ad and similarly carnatic developed and evolved during medieval period bhakti movements.
4. The central notions in both these system is that of a melodic mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. The tradition dates back to the ancient Samaveda, (lit. sâma=ritual chant), which deals with the norms for chanting of srutis or hymns such as the Rig Veda.
5. Both the music evolved with sanskritic language scripts in itself and through Vedic traditions.

Differences

1. The tradition Hindustani was born out of a cultural synthesis from the Vedic chant tradition, ancient Persian tradition of Musiqi-e assil, and also existent folk traditions prevalent in the region. Carnatic music is mainly sung through compositions, especially the kriti (or kirtanam); a form developed between the 16th and 20th cent-uries by prominent composers, such as Purandara Dasa and the Trinity of Carnatic music.
2. The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in gâyaki (singing) style. Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians, consisting of a principal performer (usually a vocalist), a melodic accompaniment (usually a violin), a rhythm accompaniment (usually a mridangam), and a tambura which acts as a drone throughout the performance. Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice.
3. The major vocal forms-cum-styles associated with Hindustani classical music are Dhrupad, Khayal, and Tarana. Other forms include Dhamar, Trivat, Chaiti, Kajari, Tappa, Tap-Khayal, Ashtapadis, Thumri, Dadra, Ghazal and Bhajan. Carnatic music, embraces several varieties of improvisation but very limited in styles. The main traditional forms of improvisation in Carnatic music consist of alapana, niraval, kalpanaswaram, ragam, thanam, pallavi, and thani avarthanam.