History Of India & World

Answer : Travelers from foreign lands played a major role in deciphering Indian history. In this light, Chinese and Arab travellers have a major part to play as they had over many centuries visited the Indian subcontinent and also because many of them have written and documented their travels extensively. These travelogues are a source of information of not only the routes of these travellers but also contain information about the various regions through which they passed, their political and socio-economic conditions and characteristics of rulers and peoples of that time.

Arab Travellers

Sulaiman was a 9th-century Muslim merchant, traveller and writer initially from Siraf in modern-day Iran. He travelled to India and China and wrote an account of his voyages around ad 850. Sulaiman visited India during the time of the Pala Empire, which then ruled present day West Bengal and Assam provinces of India and present-day Bangladesh. He calls Pala kingdom ‘Ruhma’ and attests to their military power.

Abu Rayhan Muh.ammad ibn Ah.mad Al-Biruni (973–1050), known as Al-Biruni in English, was an Iranian scholar and polymath. In 1017 he travelled to South Asia and authored a study of Indian culture after exploring the Hinduism practiced in India. He was given the title “Founder of Indology”. He was an impartial writer on customs and creeds of various nations and was given the title al-Ustadh (“The Master”) for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.

Ibn Battuta was a Berber Muslim Moroccan scholar and explorer who widely travelled the medieval world. It is uncertain by which route Ibn Battuta entered the Indian subcontinent. He worked as a justice under Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and gives us a description of the court of the Sultan along with the relations of the Sultan and other kingdoms.

Chinese Travellers

Fa- Hien was a Chinese traveller who visited the subcontinent during the time of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty. He not only describes the Gupta Empire but also in his book ‘A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms’, he describes the condition of people.

Hieun Tsang was a Buddhist monk, scholar and translator who visited India during the 7th century and described the interactions between Indian and Chinese Buddhism as well as the reign and features of contemporary kings, most importantly, Harshavardhan of Kannauj about whom he describes in detail, especially relating to the religious assemblies convened by him in Kannauj and Prayag. He also describes a number of stupa sites as well as functioning and non-functioning monasteries which are an important source of history of the time.

Yi Ching was another Chinese monk who visited India in the late 7th century. He stayed in Nalanda for nearly 11 years and played an important role in translating Buddhist texts into Chinese and also recording the history of various monastic groups, monasteries and religious figures. Due to these multifaceted roles, spread over a long period of time, the contribution of the accounts of both Arab and Chinese travellers are considered to be vital in historical reconstruction and corroboration of India.

Answer : The 18th century is considered as a period of transition.

• During this period, the land-based Mughal empire made way for the British system which was sea-based.
• The transition was not simply political, but economic as well.
• During this period, the pre-modern economy of the Mughals was forcibly linked to world capitalist markets.
• This forced linking harmed India’s interest.
• The 18th century signalled the beginning of a new historical era of pillage and colonial rule.
• With the collapse of the centralized Mughal state structure, important political, economic and social institutions also crumbled.
• Collapse of the institutions brought unrest and havoc through the century.

Conclusion

The above factors have caused the fragmented polity whose benefit was utilised very efficiently by the Britishers and after winning the Battle of Buxar they became the de-jure leaders of the country by building the British Empire in India and pushing India in the gulf of Colonialism.

• Phase of Freedom Struggle: Time Period
• Moderate: 1885-1905
• Extremist: 1906-1919
• Gandhian: 1919-1947
• Moderates were a group of political leaders in India active between 1885 and 1907.
• With their emergence, begun the organised national movement in India.
• Many of the moderates were educated in England.
• The group mostly comprised educated middle-class professionals including lawyers, teachers and government officials.

The Early Nationalists had full faith in the British sense of justice, fair play, honesty, and integrity while they believed that British rule was a boon for India. The Early Nationalists were staunch believers in open-minded and moderate politics.

Reasons for failure are as follows:

• They wanted piecemeal reforms
• Their demand of equality remained an abstract idea
• They protested against mostly un-British practices perpetrated by the viceroy
• Masses remained untouched by their methods and goals.
• They wanted the reform of British rule, not its replacement
• Emergence of leaders like Tilak in Congress led to new kind of environment
• Youth element in Vandemataram movement paved way for extremism.

Conclusion

These reasons led to the emergence and popularity of Ideologies and Political Goals like Self-Government, Complete Independence, Revolutionary terrorism and reinvigoration of the organisational strategy of Congress which had given a paradigmatic shift to the freedom struggle movement in India.

Answer :

• Malaya Peninsula had been under the imperialist control of Britishers. But during the Second World War, Japan had practically taken away all the territories of South East Asia under its control, bringing a significant change in the polity of Malaya Peninsula.
• The decolonisation process in Malaya peninsula can be easily contrasted with the earlier period of colonial rule by the occurrence of near anarchy.
• As happened in other states in South East Asia, the weakness of British authority was revealed under the Japanese occupation in Malaya.
• The Malayan Communist Party (MCP), led mainly by Chinese cadres, launched a revolt in 1948 to prevent the restoration of British rule after the Japanese surrender. This revolt, the so-called emergency, lasted for 12 years.
• It compelled the British to consider granting independence to Malaya earlier than planned, in order to counter the Communist agenda that the British would only leave if forced to do so.
• It compelled the Malaya elites to adopt multiracial political strategies to confront the communal threat of the MCP, consisting as it did mainly of Chinese followers.
• The outcome was the establishment of the federation of Malaya states and the colonies of Penang and Melaka in 1948, with privileges entrenched for the indigenous Malaya and citizenship was extended to other immigrant races. The federation of Malaya subsequently attained in 1957.
• Hence, we could see from above that the prevalence of internal war of supremacy between capitalist Britain and Communism that acted as an obstacle in the decolonisation process of Malaya Peninsula.

• India used to have an unchallenged supremacy in the traditional artisanal industry before the British era.
• But the policies pursued by the British government had a deep impact on the Indian economy.
• It completely changed the traditional structure of the economy and made it a colonial economy designed to meet the needs of the newly emergent industrialized economy of Britain.
• The famous Indian handicrafts collapsed under the colonial rule.
• This was mainly due to the competition posed by the machine-made goods that were imported from Britain.
• The ability of mass production of goods helped Britain to flood the Indian markets with cheap products especially cotton textiles.
• The railways facilitated the reach of these goods to remotest parts in India and the procurement of raw materials from these parts.
• The traditional handicrafts industry faced a tough competition from these goods produced in bulk.
• The policy of free trade followed by the East India Company helped them to dictate terms of trade.
• They compelled the Indian craftsmen to sell their goods below market price and they hired their services at below the prevailing wages. This forced many a craftsman to abandon their ancestral trade.
• The British exported raw materials from India like cotton. As a result, the Indian weaver had to buy these materials at higher prices. This in turn raised the cost of Indian handicrafts as compared to the machine-made goods.
• India now became the exporter of raw materials to British industries and an importer of ready-made goods from Britain.
• This destroyed the self-sufficient village economy as the destruction of the traditional industries led to overcrowding in the agrarian sector.

Conclusion

This not only challenged the self-sufficiency status of rural economies but also brought some new phenomenon like tradability of land, commercialisation of agriculture, Agricultural famines and loss of lives thereafter and also the concept of tenants at will. All these consequences turned out to be worst for the society.

Answer : Indian independence struggle had certain vision and the method of attaining that mission kept on changing its character according to the situation of the society in freedom struggle.

The year 1920 and after is considered an important period in the struggle of freedom because it was the year when Non-cooperation movement was started which gave a systematic style of satyagraha and the successive initiatives further enriched the freedom struggle in the following ways:

Non-Cooperation Movement: It was declaration of peaceful non-violent war against Britishers. It included active refusal to abide by the laws of Britishers.

Importance: It was for the first-time Congress declared that it would not satisfy anything less than swaraj (Dominion status). Previously it was demanding self-governance not swaraj. Its importance was also revealed in the form of Hindu-Muslim Unity.

Revolutionary Activities: It attracted the youth of the country like Chandra Sekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh and others who had made firm determination that they will get the freedom through revolutionary activities.

Importance: The brave actions and the sacrifice of their life at the younger age encouraged and motivated youth and they started taking more active part in Indian freedom struggle.

Lahore Session

It was in this session that the Congress for the first time raised the demand for complete independence or poorna swaraj. Such demand was not raised from the Congress platform earlier. The Lahore Congress accepted the new interpretation for Swaraj which was now to be ‘complete independence’.

It was further decided in the Congress that 26 January, 1930 was to be celebrated as the ‘Independence Day’. This fake Independence Day under the British rule was to be celebrated to make the Indian national movement livelier.

Karachi Session of 1931 — Some important aspects of these resolutions were:

• Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly, Freedom of association,
• Equality before law
• Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise
• Free and compulsory primary education.
• Substantial reduction in rent and taxes
• Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work.
• Protection of women and peasants
• Government ownership or control of key industries, mines, and transport.
• Protection of Minorities.

Thus, the Congress which was agenda less a few years back had the most impressive agenda in hand now and made this agenda- the basis of its political programme for the next many years to come.

Importance: The Karachi Session was memorable, because for the first time, the resolution tried to define what would be the meaning of Swaraj for common people.

The All India States Peoples’ Conference (AISPC) was formed which was a conglomeration of political movements in the princely states of the British Raj. The Conference eventually got affiliated to the Indian National Congress and Jawaharlal Nehru became its president in 1939.

Importance: This conference signifies the integration of the plight to people in the princely states with the National freedom struggle. Congress initially tried to segregate itself with the people of Princely states but through this initiative the movement of Indian freedom struggle became a mass struggle in the real sense.

Hence, these objectives slowly but steadily enriched and empowered Indian freedom struggle to such an extent that the days of Britishers became numbered and India not only attained freedom but also took inspiration from the goals of freedom struggle to make an inclusive, united and welfaristic State.

Answer : The uprising of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny was the first nationalist movement by Indians against colonial exploitation by an apathetic British rule, which played a crucial role in determining British policies towards Colonial India till independence. This led to several structural and functional changes in the policies of British towards India which had both positive and negative spillovers.

Majority of the British policies post 1857 were aimed at curbing the growth of nationalism in India and to further subvert it politically and economically.

ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES

• By Queen’s proclamation, the direct responsibility for the administration was brought under the British Crown.
• The Indian states were henceforth to recognize the paramountcy of the British Crown and were to be treated as parts of a single charge.
• Parliament was considered essential for effective administration of India.

DIVISIVE POLICIES

Military:

• The Army was thoroughly reorganized to break the unity of regiments. By accommodating soldiers from different communities in a regiment, the British tried to prevent Indian sepoys uniting together in the future for another revolt.

Attitude towards states:

• The Policy of annexation was abolished, as the princely states were given autonomy with acceptance of British paramountancy.
• British adopted Divide and Rule policy instead of direct annexation of provinces such as the Partition of Bengal in 1905.

Anti-nationalistic legislations:

• With the intent of undermining the growth of seeds of nationalism sown by the sepoy mutiny, British adopted anti-nationalistic legislations such as Vernacular Press act, Arms Act, Rowlatt Act.

Religious policies:

• With the intent of undermining nationalism, British adopted policies advocating the destruction of Hindu-Muslim Unity which caused frequent communal clashes.

Some positive impacts were also seen due to the policies adopted by the British:

• Though the British constructed railways, roadways and telegraph systems for their own trade benefits and connectivity, it resulted in growth of infrastructure and economy even after independence.
• Devolution of Indian financial administration and decentralization of local bodies was initiated.
• Western education was slowly encouraged which helped in empowering the middle class further giving rise to a class of intelligentsia.

Answer : The history of Indian Freedom Struggle would be incomplete without mentioning the contributions of women. Their sacrifices occupy an important place as they fought with true spirit and undaunted courage enduring torture and hardships. They took charge of the struggle whenever most of the men freedom fighters were in prison.

Women had been actively fighting the British even before the Revolt of 1857. Later, they showed an active participation in the Congress and its political movements like the Swadeshi. They even took part in the Revolutionary and terrorist activities, but most importantly in the wider mass movements and Satyagrahas during the Gandhian phase.

Sarojini Naidu sold proscribed literature, addressed frenzied meetings and actively took part in all the mass movements. In 1930 when Gandhi chose her to lead the Salt Satyagraha to raid the Darshana Salt Works, she endured baton blows by the police. Later she gave up writing to fully devote herself to emancipation of women and Hindu-Muslim unity. Whenever in England, she openly criticized British rule which caught the attention of scholars and intellectuals.

Madam Cama helped many revolutionaries with money and materials. She unfurled the first National Flag at the International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1907 in front of a thousand representatives from several countries. She traveled a lot including America to propagate about Indians struggling for Independence.

Annie Besant, an Irish lady who led Theosophical Society was a leading labour organizer, strike leader and reformer. In 1916, she established the Indian Home Rule League. She started a newspaper ‘New India’, criticizing British rule and was jailed for sedition. She got involved in political and educational activities and set up a number of schools and colleges like the Central Hindu College High School at Banaras in 1913.

Aruna Asaf Ali participated in public processions during the Salt Satyagraha and was arrested. In 1942, she presided over the remainder of the Quit India movement session after the leaders were arrested. She edited ‘Inquilab’, a monthly journal of the INC. Usha Mehta setup a transmitter for broad casting the Secret Congress Radio, an underground radio station which functioned for few months during the Quit India Movement of 1942 until her arrest.

Answer : Both Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose were honest internationalists and humanists. They were secular in approach and anti-racial in outlook and had great mutual admiration for each other. In spite of all this, there were glaring differences between Gandhi and Bose and in many situations were poised against each other.

Young Netaji Bose was an extremist, socialist and a firebrand nationalist who followed Tilak and Aurobindo’s path. Gandhi, on the contrary, was a moderate and a reluctant nationalist who belonged to the tradition of his mentor Gokhale and Tagore. Bose’s strong revolutionary urge for the emancipation of his motherland made him critical of many of Gandhi’s techniques.

In 1920, at the age of 23, Bose joined the Non-cooperation Movement and took prominent part in the agitation, but felt highly dejected when Gandhi called off the movement as a sequence to the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922.

Bose praised Gandhi for Dandi March and Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and particularly admired Gandhi’s success in involving women into the movement but at the same time severely criticized Gandhi’s participation in the 2nd Round Table Conference in London and was disappointed with the outcomes.

Bose not only condemned Gandhi’s favorite Charkha but gave a call to modernize India. He called upon the people to get united for an armed struggle against the British.

Bose resigned the President-ship of the Congress in 1939 and immediately proceeded to form a radical party bringing the entire left wing under one banner.

In 1940, Bose pressed Gandhi to launch the struggle taking advantage of the critical position of the British in the Second World War as he thought that it impossible to get a better opportunity to start the struggle. But Gandhi did not agree as he felt that England will be weakened after participation in the war and will have no strength to rule India, hence will be left with no alternative but to grant independence.

Bose was charged with sedition in 1941 but made a spectacular escape to Germany in order to lead struggle for freedom from outside. But Gandhi could never endorse Bose joining with the Axis powers.

But Bose’s innate devotion and respect for Gandhi remained as firm even though his path was diverging. Even Gandhi, while differing from the extreme methods of Bose, had utmost admiration for his unique effort for India’s freedom.

Answer : Yes. Perhaps linguistic division is one of the reason for the success of Indian federation, in contrast to the crumbling of various homogenous nation states which were marred with civil unrest and in worst cases-disintegrated. (USSR, Sri Lanka)

Unification of Germany and Italy populated by similar people was achieved by huge armies spanning across decades. In sharp contrast, India under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel managed to unite a much larger area divided by culture & languages within few years.

The European experience where new nations were carved over little differences in identity, made the Indian experiment appear poised for a breakup sooner than later. Yet, India managed to stay united though the journey was hampered by separatist movements like Tamil Nationalism, Khalistan, and Kashmir etc.

It is indeed a wonder that India has managed to stay united despite many differences. The masterstroke that ensured this was the decision to create linguistic states in 1956.

Take Europe, for example. It is as diverse as India is in Linguistic terms. But the difference is that such entities have carved out their seperate nation states on the principle of one language-one culture-one nation. While similar diversity in India has been accommodated into a single nation by creating states based on linguistic lines.

By accepting diversity instead of seeking to level it, India had indirectly strengthened the federal fabric of the nation and forestalled escalation of region-centric grievances into violent forms. Regional representation ensured that all genuine grievances are channelized through democratic means and addressed.

One may ask, if creating linguistic states was wise, how demand for smaller states like Telangana, Vidarbha are cropping up. This only proves that language alone may not be the deciding factor to match today’s complexity – moreover these demands were initially based on economic backwardness as against rest of the state; cultural imposition is not the principal grievance.

Granting genuine demands of separate states will not be detrimental to India; they’ll improve the representation of the region at national level, dissipate their resentment and reinforce their commitment to the Indian Union.

Answer : Anti-colonial movements in Africa were responses to European imperialism on the continent in the late nineteenth century and the greater part of the twentieth century and African responses to colonial rule varied from place to place and over time.

Several forms of both armed and nonviolent resistance to colonialism occurred. Armed violence was mostly used by the small tribes of Africa which could not succeed against colonizers as they were not united or mighty.

Nonviolent forms of anti-colonialism included the use of the indigenous press, trade unionism, organized religion, associations, literary and art forms, and mass migrations which were used more by the newly Western educated Africans.

By the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated inadvertently, a small elite of leaders educated in Western universities and familiar with ideas such as self-determination. These leaders came to lead the struggles for independence and dislodged the colonial rule.

Some of these leading nationalists in West African countries included Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast or Ghana, Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal, Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria and Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d’ Ivoire.

Influence of the philosophers such as Voltaire, Frederick and Montesquieu contributed to the societal awareness by promoting and equal treatment among all citizens. They formed a common front to make their grievances known, which cumulated to protest and political dissent. Some of them were made through books, newspapers and leaflets.

Such political organization as did exist demanded changes by fighting against injustice, discrimination of the colonial government, colonial exploitation and the national independence for their countries

Formation of United Nations Organization and mobilization of international opinion in the favour of self-determination, witness of Asian development after decolonization of countries like India and a feeling of Pan-Africanism greatly aided the efforts of these leaders.

Also the contribution of Africans during the first and second World Wars demystified the claim of superiority of the colonial masters and further imbibed the leaders with confidence.

Answer : The formation of Congress in the year 1885 can be seen as a first political stage that paved the way for Indian Independence movement. Till the year 1919, the congress was largely dominated by the moderates and the extremists, who did not, represented the masses. In the year 1919, Gandhiji formally entered institutional politics by joining congress. He emerged as the national leader representing the interests of all the sections of the Indian people in the 1920’s. He fought for the social issues such as peasants problems, tax matters, labour issues etc. People had faith in him, which can be noticed from one of the movements, that is call for quit India movement, that drew huge masses and channelizes entire nation, be it men, women, children, elderly, businessmen, labour, peasants, etc. He mobilized the masses in unprecedented movements such as non-cooperation movement, and the civil disobedience movement. The methods used by Gandhiji such as non-violence, Satyagraha appealed to masses, as opposed to the extremists methods used in some pockets of the country. In addition to this, his contribution to the evolution of ideology for ‘Self rule’ served as foundation for the Independence movement, which continued to inspire us till today.

Now, without Gandhiji, though India may still have achieved independence but the ideals that were founded by him would be missing. Although India would have gained independence but the accolade of being the largest non-violent independence movement ever in history, that India have won, might have stripped off without Gandhiji. The time Gandhiji assumed the leadership of Indian Independence movement, violent revolutionary activities had taken deep roots and some section of the Indian population was convinced that, independence could only be achieved through violent means. At that time Gandhiji shared his ideas of truth and non-violence with the masses and also advocated their benefits. He convinced Indian masses that non-violence can only be the tool to fight with mighty British empire. Without Gandhiji, Indian independence movement would have become violent and fallen stray of their goal of achieving independence. As there was no leader of the stature of Gandhji, whose leadership would have been accepted across India. Consequently, the struggle may have become a bloody war with the development of the feeling of hatredness and animosity and divided sections of the society.

Further, without Gandhiji the principles of Self rule, emancipation of women and downtrodden, non-violence, peace and tolerance, unity etc would have remained a distant goal. Not only this, but his ideas acted as a thread that have hitherto closely knitted the social, political and economic fabric of India. In addition to this, one of the most remarkable features that Indian independence movement may have missed without Gandhiji is that, the movement may have remained anti-British rule only, but Gandhiji added new dimensions to this movement. He wanted India to be free not only from British rule but from age old corrupt practices, which have deeply ingrained in the mindset of the Indians thus impeding socio-economic development. Such as practice of untouchability, restrained life of women, obscure definitions of self rule, no right to peasants, development of scientific temper, village reconstruction for development of India . To a greater extent he cured all these curses and left a medicine in the form of his teachings to be followed for their further treatment.

So, we can conclude that India may still have achieved independence without Gandhiji, but that independence may not have worth celebrating and complacent about.

Answer : The constituent assembly adopted many provision of the Government of India act 1935. A critic has portrayed the Indian constitution “as a glorified edition of the 1935 Act”. Dr. Jennings remarks, “The Constitution derives directly from the Government of India Act of 1935 from which in fact many of the provisions are copied almost textually”. Articles 256, 351, 352, 353, 356 are carbon copies of sections 126, 107, 102 and 93 of 1935 Act respectively. The federal system of government, the autonomy of units, the three lists, and the reservation of seats for backward classes, the constitutional relations between the states and the centre, and the Federal Judiciary are borrowed from the Act of 1935.

Some other provisions were Supremacy of British parliament which was replaced as supremacy of Indian parliament. According to the Constitution of India, Indian parliament is supreme in all matters related to India and also it is sovereign, all the decision taken by it will be enforceable within the territory of India. Further, the GOI act 1935 contained the provision of all India, although it never came into force, but this provision made the basis for incorporation of federal provisions in the Constitution of India.

In addition to this, GOI act 1935 contained the provision of bi-cameral legislature which later became integral part of Indian constitution. This provision explicitly provided for the creation of upper house and lower house in the Indian parliament and also allowed to have bicameral legislatures in the State legislature on fulfilling certain requirements. Moreover, the GOI act provided for provincial autonomy and the same is ingrained under the Constitution of India. Under the seventh schedule to the constitution of India, three lists clearly demarcate subjects under which the state, the center and both concurrently can legislate. This provision provides for provincial autonomy.

So we can say that GOI act 1935 is the seminal source in a sense that it inspires the constitution of India. According to Dr. DD Basu almost seventy five percent of the Indian constitution borrowed its provision of the GOI act of 1935 Not only was that provision borrowed, but the format in terms of the size, the contents, the arrangement of provisions in the Indian constitution bear close resemblance to GOI act of 1935.

Answer : The empire-shaking battles that changed the fate of India’s ruling power, be it from Delhi sultanate to beginning of Mughal empire at First battle of panipat in 1526 between Babur and Ibrahim Lodiand by the Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau Peshwa of Pune. Ahmad Shah won but with a very heavy casualty rate on both sides. It resulted in the worst defeat of Marathas in their history. The war led to a power vacuum which later led to the British conquest of India.

The battle ground of panipat has many significant features which resulted in empire shaking battle ground on following ways

• First, In order to invade India, the only land region to enter is by passing the Kyber pass and crossing the mighty Indus River in North western frontier region of India. One who passes would attack the region of Punjab and move forward.
• Second, North western frontier region is occupied by tribal population and that region is not under the direct control of Central authority.
• Third, one who wants to conquer North India needs to capture Delhi, in order to raise threat to Delhi ruling power invaders chose panipat as centre which is 90 km distance from Delhi.
• Fourth, the battle ground of panipat provides the necessary human needs like water from the Yamuna River, food from jungle and forest cover region of Panipat. So this makes ultimate region for battle, along with this Panipat region had a good terrain to develop tent for shelters during battles.

It is not that Panipat alone but the entire region, like Thaneswar and Karnal battle field of present day Haryana region has also made an impact in Indian history. If any ruler in India would have protected the North western region either by fortification or by forces the history would have been different like China, who constructed the great wall to protect from the attacks of Mongolians.

Answer : Indian Economy before British rule was self-sufficient and is majorly driven by agriculture and local handicrafts industry. So, Indian economy was closed one and fulfilled all its domestic needs from domestic market itself. With the advent of British Empire, which started to exploiting the natural resources of India and it favoured the interest of British Economy. British Economic exploitation of India can be understood by three phases as suggested by R.P Dutt, member of Communist party of Britain.

Phase I (1757-1813): This period of British rule was purely mercantilism, marked the plunder of natural resources and monopoly of British trade by East India Company (EIC) with the flow of resources at low rate to Britain and sold finished products with high prices. This is a period of Industrial revolution took place in Britain with the need of more raw materials and essential resources for manufacturing industries.

Phase II (1813-1858): This phase is free trade industrial exploitation which helped in conversion of India into a market for British textile and also source for raw materials by which manufactured goods export were declining with time because of heavy industries.

Phase III (1857-1947): It was a phase of financial capitalist phase. In this phase British decided to invest surplus capital in India with the economical interest of minimum safe returns were guaranteed to British at the cost of Indian economy. Investment took place by construction of railways, export-import firms, plantation industry etc.

The return on such capital investment constituted biggest source of drain of wealth to British popularly known as Home Charges (salary and Expenditure of Secretary of State, India Office, Company officials, holders of Company, war and military expenditure) and amount of investment is called Public debt of India.

Nationalist protested against that British rule and their exploitation of Indian Economy. Dadabai Nauroji in his Drain theory put forward the idea that Britain was draining and bleeding India. As one popular Englishmen quoted, “Britain acts very much like a sponge, drawing up all the good things from the banks of the Ganges, and squeezing them down on the banks of the Thames”.

Britishers never considered India as their homeland, on the contrary who ruled before British, all came from outside India but settled in India by treating India as their home land and done some welfare measures, they never took the wealth outside our country be it Sultanate or Mughals. Britishers till India got independence they felt that India is alien country and their main motive was to exploit the Indian resources for the economic benefit of Britain.

Answer : Post Second World War British start losing its faith in the masses of Colonial regions especially in India with the most violent Quit India movement. Indians not supporting British in World War followed by series of uprisings starting from Naval mutiny to peasant movements proved to be the last nail in the coffin of British Colonial aspirations in India. Second World War changed the balance of power in the world from Britain to USA. Though Britain was in the winning side of war its economy and military power got shattered and conse-quently there was change in government from conservatives to Labour Party.

Further, British Indian government could not rely on the Indian persons in the civil administration and armed personnels because they all started supporting the Indian national movement. Finally British lost the confidence in Indian masses; they could no more tolerate the humiliation of foreign rule.

The famous revolt of Indian Naval Ratings took place at Bombay in February 1946. The ratings had fought seven hour battle with the army and navy, it was finally ended by the national leaders, who asked them to surrender. This Naval mutiny has impacted in many other parts of country. There were wides-pread strikes in Royal Indian Air force too.

With this naval uprising, police and bureaucracy also leaning towards the national movement where Bihar and Delhi police went for strike. Not only Police, bureaucracy and military personals there were nationwide strikes, hartals in factories and offices in sympathy with naval ratings. Followed by postal department, telegraph and essential railways in South India also involved in strike in August 1946.

Above all peasant upsurge against the British for land rights and high rent took place in Hyderabad, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra. Princely states Hyderabad, Travancore, Kashmir and Patiala all involved in popular upsurge and revolts against British.

Students in school and colleges also took part in national movement and volunteered themselves in hartals and demonstration. Hence there were nationwide upsurge following Naval mutiny showed the British Indian government no longer they would reign India, which lead the British government in 1946 send Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate with Indian leaders for transfer of power to Indians.

Answer : Indian National Movement was an anti-colonial struggle against the British rule who exploited Indians and India’s natural resources that affected all section of people because of uniform administration structure by the British in India. Nationalist and masses got all motivational factors not only from India’s past glory but also from major developments that took around the world in political, economic and social spheres which influenced Indian masses and further geared up the anti-colonial struggle.

British introduced and spread the modern education to the people of India for their clerical work recruitment but this education has influenced national leaders and masses to know the happenings of National movement that took place in European nation with the influence of eminent personalities and their writing on political and social thinkers like Rousseau, Paine, J.S. Mill and political heroes Mazzini, Garibaldi and Irish nationalist. Press also played a major role in spreading their political thoughts to the masses from the writings of national leaders both in English and vernacular languages.

The rise of modern Japan after 1868 showed that a backward Asian country could develop itself without western control and it also became strong industrial and military power in Asia. This influenced national leaders that if it is possible for a country like Japan in Asia with less resources it is very much possible for a country like India.

The defeat of Italian army in 1896 and Russia by Japan in 1905 exploded the myth that no more Europe is superior, which paved way for Indians to rise against the mighty Britain.

Revolutionary movement in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey and China; Boer war in South Africa convinced Indian that a united people with the will to make sacrifice for country could challenge even the most powerful of despotic government.

The First World War created huge economic problems for the people in India. Moreover, forced conscription of the Indians in the British army also alienated the people from the colonial rulers. The situation was ripe for the nationalist leaders to motivate the people against the colonial rulers.

Another major impetus to national movement in the colonies by the impact of Russian Revolution, Communist party led by Lenin overthrew Czarist regime in Russia and became the first socialist state in the world (which created huge impact on common people in India).

The nationalist movement in India is also affected by the fact that Afro-Asian world was also convulsed by nationalist agitations after the First World War. Thus, anti-colonial struggle in India got influenced by socio political developments of other countries and such developments have positively impacted in India’s freedom struggle.

Answer : Middle East region was a key area in the cold war era, where Britain had ruled Egypt in 20th century with implementation of strong military forces along the Suez Canal. Because Suez Canal is considered as strategic importance which connects the Europe with the Asian continent and reduces the travel time on the ocean journey, instead one has to travel around volatile Cape of Good Hope unnecessarily.

The causes of the Suez Canal Crisis of 1956

Egyptians needed to get permission of British even to go near of canal, under this situation Egyptian President Colonel Nasser took advantage of such situation and founded ‘Free officers’ to remove British influence in Egypt. In 1952 attacks on British troops in Egypt got worse; this made life extremely difficult for British Army and ‘Operation Eagle’ was introduced on Egyptian police in Islamia made loss of human lives which made Egyptian angry against British.

In order to maintain stability in the Suez region Britain PM Anthony Eden moved further troops to strengthen Britain army, where at that time British is facing financial problems. So to maintain peace the Suez region Eden initiated negotiation under so called ‘Suez Group’ and in 1954, an agreement was reached that British would leave in 20 months, which ended the attacks on British troops.

Nasser and Eden met in 1955, where British PM wanted to stop Egypt’s anti-British radio broad cast and he wanted Egypt to join Bhagdad pact (Anti-communism Pro-western alliance of Middle East), where Nasser didn’t joined Bhagdad pact rather he allied himself to Soviet Union.

To modernize Egypt, Nasser wanted to build a dam at Aswan to harness the power of River Nile. Technological and engineering support was provided by Soviet Union and Egypt got some $200 million support from World Bank. For further financial assistance initially Britain and America supported the dam and agreed to support financially.

In the mean time, British troops left the Egypt and ended seventy-four years control of Egypt. However, without any reference to Britain, America suddenly announced that it was no longer going to financially support the Aswan Dam project, which humiliated Nasser.

To Nasser the dam would be a symbol of Arab pride and he was determined to go ahead with its building. In 1956, Suez Canal was nationalized, in ‘Operation Dignity and Glory’ the offices of the Suez Canal Company were taken over.

Thus by this Suez Canal crisis came to an end in 1956 with nationalization and Britain lost its glory in the Middle East region and control of strategic importance Suez Canal. By way of Operation Dignity and Glory it made a final blow to Britain self image as a super power which was expressed by the then PM Eden with frustration and anger.

Answer : The New Economic Policy (NEP), 1921 was introduced by Lenin to replace the failed policy of War Communism. NEP had some capitalistic element in order to achieve economic growth. Under the NEP, Lenin introduced following measure.

• Reversed War Communism policy (Nationalizing Banks, Industry and Church holding and Private trade abolished as result peasant production decreased), restored market economy.
• Returned small scale industries to private ownership.
• Allowed peasant to sell their surplus at free market.
• Programmes of electrification and technical schools were carried out.

At the time of independence India had a high illiteracy rate with economy depending on primary sector of agriculture (80% population working in agriculture) without any modern technological advancement and lack of heavy industries. With the infant democracy India as nation has to progress so, statesmen and first PM Jawarharlal Nehru adopted a balanced economic policy and took a lesson from Lenin not by going completely communistic approach as he did in war communism and then took New Economic Policy. On the other hand, Nehru though strong advocate for socialistic principle took a balance approach in economic policy between socialism and capitalism.

Nehru adopted the soviet model of planning and in his first plan he gave emphasis on agriculture sector and small scale industries as Lenin did in NEP. In order to increase the technical education Indian Institute of Technology and University Grant Commission has set up very similar to Lenin’s NEP on technical schools.

In our initial economic policy, the importance was given to indigenous small scale industries than heavy industries based on lessons from Lenin that is returning small scale industries to private. As a socialist, Nehru controlled the state finance and strong public sector undertaking that were under the government control rather than private players.

In a way India took either directly or indirectly some of the measures initiated by Lenin in New Economic Policy in 1921 after India got its independence in 1947 to make Indian Economy growth oriented.

Answer : The entire history of the freedom movement is replete with the saga of bravery, sacrifice and political sagacity of great women of the country. Their participation in the struggle began as early as 1817 when Bhima Bai Holkar fought against the British Colonel Malcolm and defeated him in guerilla warfare.

Some important women freedom fighters are as follow:

Lakshmi Bai: She protested against the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. She refused to surrender Jhansi and fought bravely attired as a male during the Revolt of 1857 and died in the battle field fighting the British forces. Her courage inspired many Indians to rise against the alien rule.

Sarojini Naidu was kindred for awakening the women of India. She was the first woman President of the Indian National Congress in 1925 at the Kanpur Session. Her famous achievements were Satyagraha Movement, Khilafat movement, The Rowlatt Act and the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms through which she earned huge glory and respect worldwide.

Aruna Asaf Ali played a leading role during the Quit India Movement. She unfurled the National Flag at the Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay to signify the commencement of the Quit India Movement and became a legend for thousands of youth. She edited ‘Inquilab’ a monthly journal of the Indian National Congress.

Madam Bhikaji Cama: She unfurled the first National Flag at the International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1907, organized Free India Society and began the journal ‘Bande Mataram’ to spread her revolutionary thoughts.

Other important personalities are: Kasturba Gandhi, Vijaylakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant, Sucheta Kriplani, etc.

Answer : The foreign personalities associated with such movements are:

A.O Hume: He was a civil servant, political reformer and amateur orinthologist and horticult-uralist in British India. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress, a political party that was later to lead the Indian independence movement.

Sir William Jones: In 1784 he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal to encourage Oriental studies. In his 1786 presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society, he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek, his findings providing the impetus for the development of comparative linguistics in the early 19th century. He had generated a sense of pride for India’s age-old heritage and culture.

Annie Besant: Irish by birth Annie Besant was a staunch supporter of India’s struggle for freedom. She founded the Home Rule League in Madras in 1916. She also founded the Theoso-phical Society of India. She was the President (First Woman President) of Indian National Congress for a single term at Calcutta in 1917. She also edited ‘New India’ and ‘Commonwealth’. She had done ample work to formulate favorable opinion about the Indian question in outside world.

Sister Nivedita was an Irish lady named Miss Margaret Nobel who arrived in India in January, 1898 in search of truth. She propagated for the cause of India throughout America and Europe. She attended the Benares Congress Session in 1905 and supported the Swadeshi Movement.

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio: Derozio was an Indian poet and assistant headmaster of Hindu College, Kolkata. He had started the Young Bengal movement inspired and excited by the spirit of free thought and revolt against the existing social and religious structure of Hindu society.

Answer : The contributions of Lord Dalhousie to India can be attributed as:

1. Opened the first Indian Railway system in 1853 from Bombay to Thane.
2. Laid out the first telegraph line in 1853 from Calcutta to Agra.
3. Established the postal lines on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country which made communication easier.
4. Started the public works department. Many bridges and work on Grand Trunk Road started in his reign.
5. The harbours of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.
   Beside, his notable achievement was the creation of modern, centralized states.

Answer : Maulana Abul Kalam Azad stood for a learning society through liberal, modern and universal education combining the humanism of Indian arts and the rationalism of western sciences, a society where the strong are just and the weak secure, where the youth is disciplined and the women lead a life of dignity– a non-violent, non-exploiting social and economic order. He was free India’s first Education Minister and guided the destinies of the Nation for eleven years.

He was the first to raise the issue of the National System of Education which is today the bed-rock of the National Policy on Education (1986) updated in 1992. The concept implies that, up to a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex have access to education of a comparable quality.

Azad made a debut in politics when the British Government partitioned Bengal in 1905 on religious grounds. The Muslim middle classes supported the partition but Azad rejected it outrightly. He took active part in the agitation, joined the secret societies and revolutionary organization, and came in contact with Sri Auro-bindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. He also released the journal ‘Al-Hilal’.

Answer : Tashkent Agreement was signed between India’s then Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri (who died the next day after signing thereof) and Pakistan’s President Ayub Khan, ending the 17-day war between Pakistan and India of August-September 1965. A cease-fire had been secured by the United Nations Security Council on Sept. 22, 1965.

The agreement was mediated by Soviet premier Aleksey Kosygin, who had invited the parties to Tashkent. The parties agreed to withdraw all armed forces to positions held before Aug. 5, 1965; to restore diplomatic relations; and to discuss economic, refugee, and other questions. The Prime Minister of India and the President of Pakistan agreed to consider measures towards the restoration of economic and trade relations, communications as well as cultural exchanges between India and Pakistan, and to take measures to implement the existing agreement between India and Pakistan.The Prime Minister of India and the President of Pakistan also agreed that they will give instructions to their respective authorities to carry out the repatriation of the prisoners of war. They also agreed that both sides will create conditions which will prevent the exodus of people. They further agreed to discuss the return of the property and assets taken over by either side in connection with the conflict.

The agreement was criticized in India because it did not contain a no-war pact or any renunciation of guerrilla aggression in Kashmir.

Answer : The liberation movement of Bangladesh began on 26 March 1971 and ended with the liberation of Bangladesh on 16 December 1971. The armed struggle was the culmination of a series of events, situations and issues contributing to the progressively deteriorating relations between East and West Pakistan. The questions of land reforms, state language, inter-wing economic and administrative disparities, provincial autonomy, and the defence of East Pakistan.

India had played a decisive role in the emergence of Bangladesh due to:

Refugee Crisis: By the middle of May, the flow of refugees from East Pakistan into the Indian states had reached alarming proportions. By May there were between five and a half and seven million East Pakistanis in India causing demographic pressure in Assam, Tripura and West Bengal. Responding to the large scale influx of refugees, Indian Prime Minister established a separate department to deal with the East Pakistan refugees under the charge of the then Secretary, Rehabilitation, to the Government of India.

Bring to light the Liberation War: India first took up the Bangladesh issue in the United Nations as a refugee problem. Their ambassadors to the UN offices at New York and Geneva were instructed to give detailed factual briefings to the ECOSOC, UNCHR and other related agencies about the voluntary critical events in Bangladesh.

India gets involved with the Liberation War: When Pakistani declared war against India in 22 November, India got involved with the Liberation War.

Answer : The industrial revolution began in about 1870 when Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West.

Causes of modernization in Japan

• Foreign pressure from Britain, US, and French did not want to end up like foreign controlled Chinese, started to make reforms.
• Foreign pressure was French, British, and U.S. pushing Japan to open up their economy to outside nations.
• Commodore Matthew C. Perry sailed to Japan with U.S. naval fleet and demanded Japan to sign “Treaty of Friendship”.
• End of Tokugawa rule, Mutsuhito (Boy Emperor) rules from 1852-1912, which is considered as most eventful time in Japanese history.
• Reforms of the Meiji Restoration period.
• Wanted to avoid the spheres of influence and foreign economic dominance that was occurring in China.
• Japan became the most industrious land in Asia, and poised for dramatic and industrial expansion in the 20th century.

The government had adopted methods such as: Building railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaug rating a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan.

In 1871 a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the USA to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.

Answer : The New Imperialism (or Neo-imperialism) was a period of colonial expansion-and its accompanying ideologies-by the European powers, the United States and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By some accounts, it began as early as 1830, and may have lasted until the Second World War (1939-45). The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At this time, countries focused on building their empire with new technological advances and developments, making their country bigger through conquest, and exploiting their resources. In 1884 at the request of Portugal, German Chancellor Otto von Bismark called together the major western powers of the world to negotiate questions and end confusion over the control of Africa. Bismark appreciated the opportunity to expand Germany’s sphere of influence over Africa and desired to force Germany’s rivals to struggle with one another for territory.

The Berlin Conference was Africa’s undoing in more ways than one. The colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African Continent. By the time Africa regained its independence after late 1950s, the realm had acquired a legacy of political fragmentation that could neither be eliminated nor made to operate satisfactorily. The African politico-geographical map is thus a permanent liability that resulted from the three months of ignorant, greedy acquisitiveness during a period when Europe’s search for minerals and markets had become insatiable.

At the time of the conference, 80% of Africa remained under Native Traditional and local control.

Fourteen countries were represented by a plethora of ambassadors when the conference opened in Berlin on November 15, 1884 by the imperial chancellor and architect of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck to settle the political partitioning of Africa. Bismarck wanted not only to expand German spheres of influence in Africa but also to play off Germany’s colonial rivals against one another to the German advantage. The countries represented at the time included Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway (unified from 1814-1905), Turkey, and the United States of America. Of these fourteen nations, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time.

Answer : Socially and economically, the thirteen British colonies in North America fell into two groups.The southern colonies, Virginia the largest among them, had largely plantation-based agrarian economies dominated by planter elite and worked by African and African-American slave laborers. These plantations focused on cash crop production for the Atlantic economy. The northern colonies had relatively large commercial and handicraft sectors, dominated by mercantile capitalists and worked by indentured servants and free artisan labor. Northern agriculture featured a large population of small, independent farmers, and its scale was much smaller than in the southern colonies. Slavery was part of the northern economy but not to the same extent as in the south.Also present in the colonies were two groups that formed direct links with other world societies: the British colonial government, consisting of both administrators and soldiers, and members of Indian nations living both outside and within the boundaries of the colonies themselves.

Causes: In the 17th and 18th centuries, European states passed laws to protect their own commercial interests. These laws, taken together, formed an economic system called mercantilism. The mercantilist system of the 17th and 18th centuries benefited colonial elites while enriching European governments.

But by the second half of the eighteenth century, many colonists began to resent the restrictions the mercantilist system placed on their economic activity. This was true among both the increasingly-wealthy elites and the laboring classes. Resentment intensified in British North America after the 1763 British victory in the Seven Years’ War, which the colonists called the French and Indian War. The British imposed a series of taxes and policies on the colonies to offset the cost of defense during the war and to maintain an army of 10,000 in the colonies. Taken together, these exactions began to swing public opinion against the British. Tensions came to a head after a colonial militia and British troops exchanged shots in the Massachusetts towns of Lexington and Concord in 1775.

The causes of the American Revolution were not only economic. The Enlightenment protest against absolutism, expressed in a call for liberty and equality, found fertile soil in North America. Different groups, however, had differing interpretations of these ideas. To the merchant and planter elites, freedom was taken primarily to mean freedom from British mercantilist economic restrictions.

Equality was taken to mean equality before the law, not economic or political equality among classes or races. Many people in those groups who were not in a dominant social position, such as slaves, indentured servants, artisan laborers, mariners, and small farmers, wanted real social and economic equality. Many were ready to attempt to gain it by revolution, which gave the movement a second dimension—a struggle to reform society and to rid it of anti-democratic features.

Results: The American Revolution produced freedom and equality but in terms most favorable to elite groups. Immediately after the revo-lutionaries’ victory in the war, the British army departed, and the new United States found itself outside of the British mercantilist system. After a brief experiment in a decentralized confederation, the Constitutional Convention of 1787 created a federation with a strong central government, shifting power from individual states to the national government.

That national government, however, was an Enlightenment project, with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches and elections built into the system. Racial inequality was built into the system as well. Despite the initial objections of some delegates to the conventions, a compromise allowed slaves to be counted as three-fifths of a person to determine the size of a state’s representation in the House of Representatives without allowing slaves to vote. However, northern states, through legislative and judicial decisions, gradually abolished slavery, and all but two states halted the importation of African slaves.

The new United States shortly began to expand its borders. From the administration of George Washington forward, the United States moved to acquire Indian lands. This led to a series of treaties, broken treaties, and wars that would see the United States occupying North America from the Eastern seaboard to the West Coast by the mid-nineteenth century. Indian nations were pushed off ancestral lands and onto reservations, at the cost of many lives.

Answer : After the revolt of 1857, The Indian Independence Movement started taking an organized shape. The movement was basically led by only one organized institution i.e. the Congress.

Right from the beginning, Congress members were a group of intellectuals and till independence most Presidents of Congress came from the English educated professional class. While the Congress portrayed itself as centrist in its orientation, it could not get the cooperation of all Indian communities. Muslims in the 1920's joined Mahatma Gandhi's Non Cooperation Movement, but later separated and gave support to the Muslim League. For the Muslim League it was more important to get a separate Pakistan, than participate wholeheartedly in the freedom struggle. Even the princely states stayed isolated and the princes did not give support to the national movement.

However, the feeling of one nation was prevalent almost among all communities. In Swadeshi movement, the participation of different sections of the society in different parts of the country was witnessed. The students, women (to some extent), Muslims (to some extent), and working class (to some extent) came on the streets. Then with the non cooperation movement, the participation of these sections increased and mass base widened. Hence the participation level of various communities kept fluctuating throughout the mass movement.

The National Movement saw the interplay of a number of ideologies simultaneously. One the one hand was the moderates ideology of appeasement and on the other revolutionary ideas of the extremists. Similarly, the movement saw the development of both socialistic as well as capitalistic ideology. However at a practical level, the freedom struggle leaders were mainly involved in a negotiation process with the British, every time trying to get a few more demands fulfilled, without a comprehensive long term vision. It was only after Independence during the formation of the constitution that a mass based ideology started to take shape.

Answer : Patharughat, in Darrang district, of Assam is the place where peasants rebelled against the imposition of exorbitant taxes in 1894. Altogether 140 peasants were gunned down under the order of military police officiating commandant J R Berington when unarmed peasants gathered at Patharughat to raise slogans against the strict tax regime on January 28, 1894.The peasants' revolt known as Jallianwala Bagh of Assam is one of the landmark events in the state's freedom movement

Answer : The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors. The sailors who belonged to RIN on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay Harbour went for a strike and organised a mutiny on 18th Feb, 1946. The whole mutiny involved 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors. This revolt subsequently came to known as RIN revolt. It started as a protest against their general conditions.

The immediate reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their pay and food. In addition to that there were more elementary matters such as racist behaviour by Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors and disciplinary measures taken against the sailors who demonstrated nationalist sympathy. The R.I.N revolt started electing a Naval Central Strike Committee. signalman M.S. Khan and telegraphist Madan Singh were elected as the president and vice president respectively.

The Royal Indian Navy Munity was widely supported by the Indian population. The one day strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces also joined this mutiny. Furthermore, in Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian Army. The mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were tied together those of the congress, Muslim league and the Red flag of the Communist party of India. The flags signified unity and demarginalisation of commercial issues among the mutineers.

However, the Royal Indian Mutiny was called off following meeting between the president of the Naval Central Strike committee, M.S. Khan and Vallab Bhai Patel of the congress. Vallab Bhai Patel was also sent to Bombay to settle the crisis. Thus, Patel put forth a statement calling on the strikers to end their action. Mohammad Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim league also supported the statement of Patel. As a result, the strike ended. But the assurance given by the Cogress and League leaders to the rating were not honoured.There were wide spread arrests of the ratings mutineers including leaders like M.S. Khan and Madan Singh.congress and Muslim League Furthermore, there were incidents of court-martials and large scale dismissals from the service.

The ratings at Mulund went on a hunger strike in protest and demanded to see Gandhi and Patel who had promised ‘no victimisation’ after their laying down arms. But the leaders never turned up. They were busy negotiating with the Cabinet Mission, which was appointed by the British Prime Minister Attlee on February 19, the very day following the RIN revolt. The political apathy continued even in the later decades. Till date, History text books don’t talk much about the revolt.

The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was very significant in several ways.

• During the mutiny, fearless action by the masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind.
• Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
• RIN revolt was also seen as an event marking the end of British rule as finally as the Independence Day.
• RIN revolt also promoted the British to extend some concessions.

Answer : Bharat Stree Mahamandal, All India Women’s Conference and Women’s India Asso-ciation were some of the important women’s associations of the early twentieth century. Bharat Stree Mahamandal was the first women's organisation in India founded by Sarala Devi Chaudhurani in Allahabad in 1910. One of the primary goals of the organisation was to promote female education which was not well developed at that time. The organisation opened several offices in Lahore, Allahabad, Delhi, Karachi, Amritsar etc. to improve the condition of women all over India.

All India Women’s Conference was founded in 1927 by Margret cousins having Sarojni Naidu, Lady Dorab Tata as its founding members. It worked towards women’s education, abolition of purdah system, legislative reform, and abolition of child marriage, harijan welfare, family planning, and rural reconstruction. These women’s organisations worked for a society based on principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights and opportunities. They wanted security for every human being; the essentials of life not determined by accidental births but by planned social distribution.

Their efforts led to several legislative reforms in Sharda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937), Factory Act (1947), Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act etc. AIWC efforts also led to setting up of The All India Women’s Education Fund Association, and Lady Irwin College of Home Science.“Social and educational reforms effort by the women’s associations helped in preparing the Indian women to participate in the freedom struggle. With Mahatma Gandhi women availed an opportunity to get into the scene of freedom struggle.

Answer : Naujawan Bharat Sabha was an association of Indian youth which was established at a convention held in April 1928 at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. The aims of the Sabha were to create a youth wing of peasants and workers with a view to usher in revolution in the country and overthrow the British rule. The Sabha remained active between March 1926 and April 1927.

Answer : Babbar Akali Movement, emerged in the wake of the Akali Movement, and was an underground terrorist movement established in the Jalandhar Doab in 1921. The Babbar Akalis were Gur Sikhs, who were against the imperialist policies of the British Government. Babbar Akalis did not approve of the Congress leadership and were against the Gandhi formula of non-violence and non-cooperation.

Answer : Before Wellesley British has followed the policy of consolidating their gains and resources in India and making territorial gains only when this could be done safely without antagonising the major Indian powers. However, Wellesley and his successors decided that the time was ripe for bringing as many Indian states as possible under British control. Thus predecessors of Dalhousie followed the policies of outright wars to annex powerful empires under Tipu Sultan and Maratha confederacy. Under such policy Sindh province was also annexed deliberately through direct wars due to growing Anglo-Russian rivalry. However, Dalhousie’s predecessors tried to avoid direct war in case of weak Indian rulers and used subtle means like “Subsidiary Alliance policy”. Through “Subsidiary Alliance” British were able to annex Hyderabad and Awadh.

Under Dalhousie, British annexation policy was became more aggressive. From the very beginning, he was determined to extend direct British rule over as large an area as possible. He had declared that “the extinction of all native states of India is just a question of time”. The chief instrument through which he implemented his policy of annexation was the “Doctrine of Lapse”. Under the policy he thus tried to legitimize the annexation of native empires. Many states including Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi and Sambalpur were annexed by applying this doctrine. Besides he also fought direct wars to annex Punjab, lower Burma and Sikkim.

Answer : Latika Ghosh was an Oxford scholar. She established the Mahila Rashtriya Sangha in Chiitagong in 1928 at the behest of Netaji Subash Chandra Bose. The aim of the MRS was to fight for freedom through the mobilization women for political work. Mahila Rashtriya Sangha was started to organize women to resist the Simon Commission. She worked in close connection with the Congress and entailed 300 women students in her mission by 1928.

Answer : Bhai Maharaj Singh was the nationalist spiritual Sikh leader known as the first freedom fighter of India who took up weapons against the British rule in 1847 after the First Anglo-Sikh War.

Answer : (a) "Many Englishmen honestly consider themselves the trustees for India and yet to what a condition they have reduced our country".

During the 1930s a divide can be witnessed between Gandhian methods and other prominent Congress leaders particularly, Bose and Nehru. The deadline given by the Calcutta Congress (1928) to the Government for giving India the dominion status was near. The liberals, Gandhi and even Nehru, signed Lord Irwin's Delhi Statement but Irwin flatly rejected congress' demands about the proposed round table. In this background the 1929 Lahore session took place.

The notion of 'Whiteman's burden', if critically analyzed led to nothing, but turmoil and further problems in the native society. It may be that some benefits may have occurred due to west's advance in science and technology but overall these were more oriented towards Britain's advantage. As for the idea of trusteeship there could be cited many examples of benevolent Englishmen. However these were of the nature of paternalistic despotism, and not a matter of equality, and rights. In his presidential address Nehru made his socialist ideological leanings clear. He took the side of peasants and found the trusteeship ideal impractical for the solutions to plight of the peasants and labour, and denounced Gandhi's pet idea of 'trusteeship'. He showed himself, moreover as a committed democrat with socialist leanings.

(b) "The Foreign power will be withdrawn but for me real freedom will come only when we free ourselves of the dominance of western education, western culture and western way of living which have been ingrained in us".

Given the rise of national consciousness in the Indian society and strands were visible-religious-communal consciousness & the enlightened rational consciousness. The extremist nationalist on both sides referred to their exclusive glorious ages divisive in tendency. The rationalist pragmatic ‘ever-flowing-culture’ concept kept the positive aspects to further build upon the society inclusively. The foreign power attempted to manufacture the natives ‘black in skin, white in matters of taste, culture and thinking’. The colonialists also brought along with the needed impetus in the intellectual field & linked the nation on this matter with rest of the west. However, for this to happen, colonization / slavery not required. The people of India to evaluate their course of action according their own specific conditions & requirements. The opposition of the dominance of ‘western’ should be seen in this context.

Answer : The Swadeshi Movement was relatively successful in maintaining communal harmony but in the later phases there arose certain tendencies on divisive lines. It took the form of riots in east Bengal. The elite-politics of Salimullah group and the Muslim League (established in 1906) etc. with the incitement of administration can be termed as the major actors in these events. The scholars have seen these in the context of economic matters. It can be said that the inciters of communal politics and players of communal politics had succeeded with the incitement of administration were able to disturb the communal harmony of the movement. The real reasons were economic in nature, according to scholars, and the lack of understanding of the nature resulted in riots. In turn, then, illiteracy and rich-poor divide gave the necessary fodder to the 'comm-unal-beast', which was amply utilized by the administration and the opportunists. It is in this context that Gurudev emphasized Atmashakti, austerity, and constructive work during the mov-ement. To him these will realize the social harmony in the long run. This however did not materialize and communalism fattened and ultimately led to partition.

1. King Nongbah: Also known as U Kiang Nongbah, he was the leader and the guiding spirit of the Jaintiya Rebellion of 1862. The root cause of the rebellion was imposition of income tax, in addition to house tax. Appreh-ension of tax on betel and betel-nut created turmoil and a fierce rebellion broke, which U Kiang Nongbah led; but was betrayed, captured and hanged publicly on December 30, 1862.
2. Maski: It is an archaeological site in Karnataka. A minor rock edict of King Ashoka was found in 1919, bearing the name Ashoka instead of devanampiyatissa. This helped established the fact that 'devanampiyadassi' and Ashoka were the name of the same king.
3. Brahmadeya: A form of land grant started from the Pallava period in which the village settlements were meant specifically for the upkeep of Brahmans so that they may perform their usual works. These were exempted from royal taxes and levies.
4. Egmore Faction: The justice party was born as a rival group to obliterate the influence of the Brahmin controlled 'Mylapore clique' of the moderates. The 'Egmore faction' was the mixed group of the Brahmin and non-Brahmin professionals, which opposed the mylapore clique. T M Nair was in this group.
5. Haileybury College: This College in Hertford, UK imparted education and training to English youths for the East India Company's civil service from 1805. It functioned as a college for the education of the East India Company cadets by selecting men for the Indian Civil Service by competitive examination and it was used until the transference of the powers of the East India Company to the government of India in 1858.
6. Ijara System: It is the system of farming out the land revenue to contractors among the later Mughals. In the system rent or use-right of land revenue administration, wherein the actual property did not go to the Ijaredar or lessee but it was fraught with much evil in the administration.
7. Gurudwara Reform Movement: It originated with the Gurudwara Reform or Akali movement of the early 1920's, which lasted until 1925 when the Gurudwara bill was placed on the statute book. It was the corrupt Mahants of the Gurudwara Shrine Board, and ultimately led to the establishment of Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.
8. Marumakkathayam: Caste-based non-conjugal relation for progeny practiced in Kerala involving male Namboodari and Naayar women; maternal side being responsible for upbringing. It is a matrilinear system of inheritance that is unique to Nair Tharavadus or Nair communities in Kerala state, south India. It is exceptional in the sense that it was one of the few traditional systems that gave women liberty, and right to property. Under this system, women enjoyed respect, prestige and power.

Answer : When British entered India, it was not a unitary state. There were prescence of many Princely states. Some states were prosperous and some were not. Indian over all social, economic condition had not developed.

British introduced many social reform measures like abolition of Sati in 1829, widow Remarriage Act 1856, and etc. Created infrastructure like introducing railways in India. These railways helped industries to get access to the market and also the raw material centres.

British introduced a new system of administration in India. Modern judiciary came up. It emphasise for decentralized type of government. They introduced a Rule of Law in the territories. A natural corollary to the principle of equality before the law. This certainly was a novel feature in a caste-ridden society.

The western education introduced by British helped Indian middle class to get English education. Because of modern education, which introduced english language helped to unite the country.

Apart from all these benefits, British new type of education, administration and social policies created new social classes in India. Earlier Indian society was divided on the basis of the caste, now it was divided on the basis of class.

The people who were able to enter the British administrative system were elite class. They got the benefit of British education system and entered the administrative system of British. These people were loyal to the Britishers. Other people who were loyal to British were Zamindars.

One more class was middle educated class. But this section of people were not loyal to British They took the help of British policies. They are the people who created national awakening among the people. They also worked to remove the social evils of the society.

One more and the last class was the people who are exploited by the British. They are not getting the benefits of the British policy. These people are the agrarian class people. These people are exploited by the Zamindars.

Therefore, we can say that British new education system, economic development created a class society.

Answer : British rule in India was based on opportunities provided by the situations in different time periods so the British rule lacked vision and was filled with contradictions and inconsistencies. This can be manifested by different political, economic, social and cultural policies of British rule. Sometimes it differed from one governor general. This can be easily deciphered from the British Policy towards Princely States. It started with equal partnership to subsidiary alliance then to doctrine of Lapse. But after the 1857 revolt the British Policy towards Princely States, social reforms, viewpoint about Hindus Muslims, composition of army, civil service reforms changed completely tenants rights varied form region. No region based on political and social realities. Participation of Indians in administration underwent a dramatic change from the period of Cornwall’s to Government policy of ‘divide and rule’ got the shot in arms of 1857 revolt. They supported Hindus and Muslims according to situations and they a myriad vision about the future of India. Their only goal was to rule India as long as possible by manipulating different circumstances. This can be known from the Cripp’s proposal of dominion states to complete independence provided by Mountbatten plan. Hence British vision of Indian was the repository of opportunistic ideas which was reflected through their contradictory and inconsistent policies.

Answer : Special Congress session at Calcutta accepts policy of progressive Non-Cooperation with the unjust government. Through Non-Cooperation Movement congress hoped to paralyse the functioning of civil administration of the unjust foreign government by withdrawing all cooperation from it.

During Non-cooperation Movement Gandhi emerged as a great leader. His saintly figure and charismatic personality won many followers. During NCM, Gandhi won over the Muslims for Non-cooperation. Congress became a movement of the massed peasants in villages, workers in cities, women, students also joined the NCM.

The terror of British administration disappeared. Congress slogans for Swaraj shouted from house-tops. People geared for all possible sacrifices for Swaraj. Bonfire of foreign goods became a common site in cities. Government courts boycotted and Arbitration courts set up to settle disputes.

NCM gave a new unity of purpose like National flag (tricolour), National slogan (for Swaraj) National dress (Khadi) and National language (Hindi).

The Khilafat Committee and the Congress agreed to launch a non-cooperation movement against British Government. That means there was a unity between Hindu and Muslims.

Tilak and Annie Besant played a mediator role to reunite moderates and Extremists. NCM also transformed the nature of the struggle for Indian freedom.

Therefore, “Non-Cooperation Movement gave new direction and energy to the national Movement”.

Answer : Lakshmi Bai, Rani of Jhansi: Lakshmi Bai, Rani of Jhansi revolted against British when Jhansi was annexed by the application of the Doctrine of Lapse.

Ilbert Bill: Ilbert Bill (1883-84) formed by a law member of the Viceroy’s council Sir. C.P. Ilbert which abolished judicial disqualification based on race. It was passed when Lord Rippon was Viceroy.

Lala Hara Dayal: Revolutionist, journalist, educationalist and founder member of Gadar Party Lala Hara Dayal established a bureau in India for armed revolution. He was also a great scholar of the Sanskrit and Philosophy.

Vaikom Satyagraha: Vaikom Satyagraha was started on March 30, 1924. The satyagraha was started to establish the right for all people to walk through the temple roads. Leader like K.P. Kesava Menon and J.K. Madhavan led the agitation.

Indian States Commission: After independence Indian states Commission was set up headed by Fazal Ali. This committee recomm-ended for formation of states of the basis of ling-uistic.

Bodhisattva: Bodhisattva of Mahayana was a saviour and would help every living organism in attaining Nirvana.

Megasthenes: Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador from the court of Selecus to that of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote accounts of Indian people. He wrote a book called ‘Indica’.

Brihadeshwara Temple: It is an architectural work of Chola Empire. It was built by Rajaraja I of chola dynasty at gangaikonda cholapuram.

Perini Shivatandavam: It is a type of dance in Andhra Pradesh Kakatiya dynasty of Andhra Pradesh gave importance to this dance. Before going to the war this dance was performed before Shiva by males.

Allasani Peddna: He was one of the members in Ashtadiggajas, the eight gems of Telgu poetry. Flourished in the court of the Krishan Dev Raya of Vijayanagar Empire.

Golkonda Fort: It is situated 11 kms away from Hyderabad city. It was built consecutively by three dynasties, the Kakatiyas, the Bahmanis and the Qutab Shahis, the major contribution comes from the latter.

Chishti Silsila: Chishti Silsila in India was introduced by Sheikh shaikh moinuddin sijzi (1236 A-D).Claims the large number of followers today.

Chouth and Sardeshmukhi: The Marathas collected chauth or one-fourth of the land revenue. The sardeshmukhi or one-tenth of the standard land revenue was imposed on the entire population of the villages or town in token of their recognition of the Maratha king as their sardeshmukh.

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: It was established by M.G. Ranade in 1867 in Poona. The main objective of this sabha was to act as a bridge between common man and Government.

Rama Sethu: According to Hindu scriptures and belief, Lord Ram and his vaanar Sena had built a bridge from Rameshwaram to Sri Lanka.

Answer : The colonial order faced a threa-tening crisis in India as all over the world during 1919 and 1939. Some revolutionary activities had created a trouble in colonial order, even before the end of the First World War. The promises which the British Government made for the Indian people during the First World War were not fulfilled. Rowlatt Act and the incident of Jallianwala Bagh enhanced mass dissatisfaction further. British government introduced several constitutional reforms during 1919-1939 to control the Indian dissatisfaction.

With the legislative council's Bill 1919 British tried to go for parliamentary reforms. They tried to satisfy the Indians with dual governance and the expansion of the legislature, in this Act. But Indian people and specially Congress Party had lost their faith on British Government and their reforms by that time. Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movement were started and that pressurized the British Government even further. Later to strengthen the 1919 Act and constitutional reforms British constituted 'Simon Commission', but Indians were not satisfied with it and there was a huge protest against it.

British style of reforming Indian constitution, such as the Act of 1919 and formation of 'Simon Commission', without respecting Indian opinion agitated Indians. Now congress adopted "Purna Swarajya" as its goal in 1929. Indian protested and mass movements called Civil Disobedience and Dandi March were the major crisis creating actions for the colonial order. British Government wanted to establish its rule permanently and get rid of these crisis, thus they brought Government of India Act, 1935. Later Congress contested elections according to this Act and they formed governments in most of the states. The illusion that the League represented the Muslims and Congress to the Hindus was also done away with by the result of the 1937 elections. But in response to these crisis some activists choose a violent path of struggle to get rid of colonial rule.

They killed unpopular British officers in Kakori, Kanpur, Lahore etc. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev threw a bomb in Central Assembly and let themselves hanged in 1931. It created a great threat to the government. During this period Congress fought against the British Government dividing into extremist and moderate groups in their own style.

Therefore, it can be said that all these happened because this period helped in disillusioning the old beliefs regarding Indian conditions and British Supremacy. Colonial crisis during 1919-1939 was responsible for awakening Indians for more constitutional reforms.

Answer : British Government had a lesson from the 1857 revolt. To establish their rule in India permanently, British had to find out new policies. For this, the Act of 1858 was introduced. Through this Act India’s rule came directly under British Crown for a smooth administration. British established a 15 member committee and a secretary of state. Under this Act there were changes in the army and the administrative system, according to the need. In the services provided by the British, there were religious secularity and other incentives to satisfy the Indians. As a whole 1858 Act led the path for the British Government to establish the strong rule of the British parliament and Crown in India.

In the beginning of 20th century national awakening was established in the extreme sense. National Movement was activated and on the issue of division of Bengal, Swadeshi Movement started. Reacting to this, the British Government brought the Indian Council Bill 1909. The aims of the Indian Council Bill 1909 were: (A) To satisfy the moderates and to divide the extremists within the Indian National Congress. (b) To introduce separate electorates and to separate the Muslims from the National Movement.

By this Act the number of members in the Central Legislative Council was fixed to 60 and the members were given a very weak right to question the budget. But this act provided separate elections and religion became the base in the Indian politics. This Act led further the communal politics and ultimately the way shown leading to the division of India.

Answer : Critiques say that supporting Khilafat Movement by Gandhiji was a backward step. To some extent this was right also, because for the first time leaving the secular policies, keeping religion as the theme, the All India Movement started working. As a result the religious, communal issues were encouraged. However we should mention that in the immediate situation, it was of the utmost importance to have support from all class and section of the country to succeed in the National Movement. In Khilafat Movement issue, by supporting the Muslims Gandhiji attracted a large class to the Movement. Again during the 1919-1922 periods, there was a remarkable unity of Hindu-Muslim which was an indication of the success of Gandhiji's policy. By 1916, by the Lucknow Pact, Congress accepted the issue regarding the separate electorates for the Muslim. Gandhi did not have anything to do with this. Congress cut apart from the so called secular policy. Further Gandhiji protested against the religion-based politics and later he also protested against the division of the country on the basis of religion. During the massive riots Gandhiji tried his best through non-violence and the riots stopped. Thus, it will be wrong to judge that by supporting the Khilafat Movement, Gandhiji hurt the religious secularity.

Answer : To use the non-violent movement for the independence of India seemed a difficult task to the youth. The youths separated from the moderates and tried to find out alternate ways for the Gandhian policies; during this time only, the violent means and strength were used as a medium to end the British rule. Bhagat Singh was the main pillar of this policy. Under Bhagat Singh’s leadership in 1928 the freedom fighters established the Hindustan Republican Association. Furthermore, revolutionary activities were also undertaken under Bhagat Singh’s leadership. Among them Saunders’ murder and assembly bombing incidents was the main. The revolutionists created lots of hurdles for the British Government. The revolutionists led by Bhagat Singh were very radical. Bhagat Singh in his trial made itclear that he was not simply undertaking the bombings and otherrevolutionary activities but he wanted an end to the exploiters bothwithin the country and the foreigners and to establish a universal social system. Bhagat Singh produced the example of sacrifice for Purna Swaraj which has always been an encouragement for all Indians. He worked for the freedom of India keeping, religious conservation and limited social view aside. All these really influenced and encouraged the upcoming youth of India.

Answer : In 19th century the process of religious reform had started almost in all Indian religions. The contemporary Indian social system was associated with religion. Naturally religious reforms and social reforms were complementary to each other. In the 19th century, a lot of socio-religious reform movements took place; like in Hindu religion, the Brahma Samaj and Arya Samaj, in Muslim religion Aligarh and Ahmedia movement, in Sikh religion Akali movement and in Parsi religion Rahnumai Majdayasan Sabha came into existence. Almost all the reformers were influenced by the modern science and rationality and the conclusion of humanism. But from the nature’s point of view, there were some differences in these movements. In some reforms the dependence of Western thought was more. For example Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society etc. were dependent on the past and on the other hand, Brahma Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and Rahnumai Majdayasan Sabha were influenced by the Western thought.

If we have an overall look at 19th century socio-religious reforms movement’s nature, it becomes clear that this movement was associated with urban middle class and upper class in which rationalism and religious universalism put importance on the social system reforms and modernisation. In the realm of culture emphasis was on religious and philosophical field, and art, music, science and technology etc. were benefited less comparatively. In modern National Move-ment, socio-religious reforms played the prime role. The socio-religious leaders leaving all socio-religious controversies to strengthened the Indian social strength. Those reforms helped Indians to have comparatively more self-confidence, self-respect and the feelings of patriotism. Those movements helped introduced to all Indians political and social freedom, equality and friendship. From these, humanity and morality among the common people spread and the feelings of political freedom and modern development raised. The slogans for Swadeshi and self-dependence of Swami Dayananda and Swami Vivekanand spread a new consciousness among the common people. Naturally socio-religious reforms played a very important role in the formation of the base for the National Movement.

Answer : The Age of Sangam Literature: It was the age of the great literatures during 1st century B.C. to 3rd century B.C. under the Chola & Pandya rulers in which the Tamil poets created great literary works.

Bhakti: It was a form of worshipping of deities through total devotion and love for the gods and believing that the gods answer the prayers for their love to the devotees.

Ashtadhyayi of Panini: It is mainly a grammar book. In this book the contemporary social, economic and cultural incidents at that time are also narrated.

Charvakas: Charvaka established the Charvaka or Lokayata philosophy. Charvaka philosophy is totally a materialistic philosophy which does not accept the existence of God.

Ajivikas: Maskari Gosol established this community in the 6th century B.C., which believed in atheism and determinism.

Gandhara Art: It is also known as Indo-Greek Art. This art is a form of idol art which started developing in the 1st and 2nd century B.C.

Mlechchhas: In the epics those tribes were called Mlechchhas who did not believe in the situations related to Brahman religion and Vedic influence.

Lingayats: It is a Shaiva community which worshipped ‘linga’. It is also known as Veersh-aiva. Brahman Vasava established Ling-ayats.

Megasthenes: He was an ambassador of Selucus Nikator. He was an educated person who was in Chandragupta Maurya’s court till 298 B.C. He wrote “Indica”.

R.C. Dutta: Jurist, economists and nationalist. He was the chairman of the Lucknow conference in 1899. He wrote the history of economics in British India.

Nagarjunakonda: This place is situated in Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh. The name of the place is based on Buddha philosopher Nagarjuna. Here a Buddha Sthupam of the Mauryan age was found.

Pastoralism: It is associated with the age in which people used to tame cattle and live a nomadic life. The initial Vedic people were pastrolists.

Rudramadevi: Rudramadevi was a ruler of Kakatiya dynasti of Warrangal. Rudramadevi took the title of Rudradeva Mahajan and successfully ruled for 35 years.

Sati: Sati is the system in Hindu religion according to which the wife is supposed to die on the same pyre with the dead husband. It was abolished in 1829.

Ramanuja: He was a great saint in the medieval period. He introduced Visistadvaita in philosophy and showed a new path in Bhakti movement.

Answer : Lord Curzon and Jawaharlal Nehru has been the top administrator of India at two different period of time. Lord Curzon was the viceroy of India during 1899 to 1905 while Nehru became the Prime Minister of India 1947 (i.e. after independence). Although there is a difference of almost 50 years between the administrations of these two but there were lots of similarities can be seen in the administration and policies followed by them.

Nehru and Curzon both favored an active foreign policy. To develop contacts with other countries was the centre theme of the foreign policy of both of them. However, the policy of Curzon was very much aggressive in outlook whereas that of Nehru was based on peaceful coexistence. To implement his foreign policy Curzon even attacked many countries including Tibet, Sikkim, Burma and Afghanistan whereas Nehru never did so.

Both of them had tried to impose their personal ambitions and highhandedness in every sphere of administration. Curzon tried to control even the local self-government and universities. In establishing control over military he had a quarrel with the then commander-in-chief, Lord Kitchener. His Indian University Act 1904 was protested by the Nationalist leaders. Though there was not any quarrel or protest against Nehru but it can be said that he was very much identical to Curzon in establishing his personal ambitions and highhandedness that can be seen especially in his Industrial policy, which was totally oppose to the Gram-Swaraj of Gandhijee.

There is also a similarity between the two was that both of them had the desire to remain at the top of the administration, that is why Curzon had differences with the members of his Executive Council and Nehru had differences with the members of the Parliament. Thus it can be said that regardless of distance in time, there were lots of similarities between Lord Curzon and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Answer : The Government of India Act, 1935 was a landmark in the history of constitutional development in India. After the Third Round Table Conference, the British Government published a white paper in March 1933 containing an outline of a new constitution. The scheme contained provisions for a federal setup and provincial autonomy. It proposed Diarchy at the centre and responsible governments in the provinces. The British parliament constituted a joint committee of the two Houses to further consider the government’s scheme formulated in the white paper. The joint committee submitted its report in November 1934. On the basis of the report, a Bill was prepared which was passed by the British parliament and Royal assent being given to it on 4th August 1935, it become the government of India Act, 1935. The Act besides proposing changes in the Home Government, suggested following changes in the admini-stration of India.

1. A Federal government would be established in India, which would include the native states as well.
2. Diarchy, the type of government, which was established in the provinces by the Act of 1919, would be established at the centre.
3. The provinces would be given complete autonomy to govern themselves in the matters given in the provincial list. The central government wasn’t expected to interfere in the affairs of the provinces in normal circumstances. The governors were expected to rule with the help and advice of Indian ministers’ chosen from among the members of the provincial legislature.
4. A Federal Court was established at the Centre.
5. The Reserve Bank of India was established.

“The basic conception of the Act of 1935 was that the government of India was the government of the crown, conducted by authorities deriving functions directly from the crown, in so far as the crown did not itself retain executive functions. This conception familiar in Dominion consti-tutions was absent in earlier Acts passed for India. Under the Act the Governor’s provinces were given a new legal status and broadly freed from the superintendence, direction and control of the Government of India and the Secretary of state, except for specific purpose. However the proposal for setting up the federation of India did not materialize.

The formation of Indian ministers proved useful for experience for administration and working of the parliamentary government. It also made themselves confident and inspired them further to gain independence. The experiment of provincial autonomy under the Act of 1935 definitely served some useful purposes. Thus, we can say that the Government of India Act, 1935 mark a point of no return in the history of constitutional development in India.

Answer : An important development in the second half of the 19th Century was the establishment of large-scale machine based industries in India. It led to the emergence of two new classes Industrialists or Capitalists and the modern workers class. From the very beginning the attitude of these new classes was favourable towards the National movement. It is important to note that the Industrial development in India took place without government help and in opposition to British policy. The government of India did not give any financial or other help to newly found industries. Thus, the Indian industrialists were of the view that, it is impossible to influence British government.Basically the British rulers of India did not conceive of an industrialized India. So as an alternative the industrialists helped nationalists in the fight against British rule.

Most of the industrialists were associated with the Indian National Congress before independence. Many of them were very famous in congress and even arrested by the government, such as Jamuna Lal Bajaj, Samual Arron and Lala Shankar Lal. Although some industrialists did not join Congress but helped it remaining outside, such as, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Ambalal Sarabhai and Balchand Hiranand. Besides, many small industrialists supported Congress either from outside or remaining within the Congress.However, some of them were opposed to it.

Answer : Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru was the main pillar of National movement during Liberal phase. His impact can be seen as the liberal attitude of National movement. He was instrumental to bring back Tilak and many other revolutionary leaders in to the congress in 1916. Thus, it can be said that he worked as a bridge between liberals and revolutionaries. He gave Indian National Movement a new form and direction.

He was an advocate, and fights many cases of national importance, most famous among them was ‘Meerut Conspiracy Case’. When the British Indian government tried to crush the communist through Meerut conspiracy Case, he along with Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhula Bhai Desai, M.A. Ansari, and M.C. Chagla were in the Defense Council in favour of the convicts.Three British Communists Phillip Spratt, Ban Bradely and Laster Huchinson were convicted in Meerut conspiracy case (1929). It was the longest conspiracy trial.

He participates in all the Three Round Table Conference as a representative of liberals, though he could not get success in influencing the conference. The Proceedings of the conference were logged by the communal issue. After the failure of conference British Prime Minister Ramsey Macdonald announced the proposal of Communal Award. Gandhiji strongly reacted to the proposal and went on a fast unto death in Yarvada Jail which was ended with signing of the Poona Pact. Sir Sapru had played a great role in this pact. Thus it can be said that Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru had played an important role in the development of National movement.

Answer : The consolidation of British Supremacy in India during the 18th and 19thcentury reflected the obsolescence of Indian social practice and institution with the growth of colonial dominance, a new intelligentsia deve-loped which imbibed the liberal western culture and recognized the need to raunchy movements to reform social institutions and religious outlooks inherited from the past. The targets of the severest intellectual attack were the existing social cultural evils and malpractices such as obscurantism, superstitious and irrationality em-bedded in the society. However, they did not stand for structural transformation; changes were sought within the framework of the existing social structure.

The social reforms like upliftment of the women, late marriage, monogamy, widows remarriage, elimination of caste distinctions, monotheism etc. were brought into Indian society as an outcome of renaissance.

The intellectual movement or Renaissance in India was urban phenomenon; it originated and greatly operated in the urban areas only. The main means used for the propagation of ideas and for the creation of favorable public opinion were the urban communication channels, such as the press, lectures and sabhas, propaganda network.

Despite being a localized affair, it was, however not regional in its inspirations and aspirations. Although their activities remained confined to certain urban pockets, the intellectuals extended their vision to comprehend the problems of different regions and the country as a whole. Moreover, they made conscious attempts to undermine the nations of provinciality and regional destinations.

Answer : Firstly, the British introduced the modern concept of the rule of law. Their administration was to be carried out in obedience to laws, which clearly defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the subjects. One important feature of the concept of the rule of law was that any official could be brought before a court of law for breach of official duty or for acts done in excess of his official authority.

Secondly, the Indian legal system under the British was based on the concept of equality before law. The same law applied to all persons irrespective of their caste, religion, or class. Previously the judicial system had paid heed to caste distinction and had differentiated between the highborn and low-born.

Thirdly, Macaulay’s minute of 1835 on education brought English to the pursuit of education. It modernized the educational setup in India. As an outcome of Macaulay’s education system new thinking and opinion cropped up everywhere in the intellectual field which later facilitated to the bringing of vigorous nationalist movement. Again, by the Charter Act of 1853 Indians were permitted to enter into the Civil Services by competitive examination hitherto denied to them. They became part of Indian administrative system. This steel-frame still exists in India and imparts administrative confir-mability.

Similarly a long list of council and charter Acts especially the Government of India Act, 1935 during the British rule prepared the background for constitutional development which became manifested when our constitution was formed. They also abolished evil customs of sati and thuggi.

Answer : The Queen's Proclamation announced the abandonment of the policy of annexation. The Doctrine of Lapse was buried and an assurance was given that the crown desired no extension of present territorial possessions.

The immunity from the policy of annexation was obtained at great cost and lowering the states of Indian princes. Further, the fiction of the Indian princes standing on a status of equality with the crown as sovereign independence states finally came to an end. Canning referred to the rulers of Indian states as feudatories and vassals and to the crown as the unquestioned ruler and paramount power in India. The crown also exercised the right to regulate the status and salutes of the Indian princes in all matters of ceremonials. So, upon the whole, the Govt. of India exercised complete and undisputed control over the external and internal affairs of the Indian states. It could declare war, neutrality or peace for the Indian states.

The change in policy was due to the loyal attitude of the ruling princes during the revolt of 1857-58 which had amply demonstrated that the princes could be used as breakwaters to future possible storms in India.

From 1905 onwards the governments followed a policy of cordial co-operation towards the Indian states the growth of the political unrest in British India puts the Government of India in trouble. Hence they used the policy of subordinate union as an instrument to subdue the revolu-tionary activities. The British Government thought it to be expedient to utilize the supports of the India princes to counter the progressive and the revolutionary activities. Hence by the policy of subordinate union the Government of India and the native princes formed a common front to safeguard their position and the privilege. The government of India no longer feared the resistance of the Indian princess. Thus the policy of Subordinate isolation ultimately gave rise to the policy of Subordinate union.

Answer : The circulation of newspapers during the early period of British rule in India never exceeded hundred or two hundred. There was hardly any danger of public opinion being subverted in India. What really worried the company’s officers in India was the apprehension that these newspapers might reach London and expose their misdoings to the Home authorities. In the absence of press laws, the newspapers were at the mercy of the company’s officials.

In 1799 Lord Wellesley brought the censorship of the Press Act which imposed almost wartime restrictions on the press. According to this Act publishers were required to submit all material for pre-censorship to the Secretary to the Government. John Adams, an acting Governor General brought the Licensing Regulation, 1828 which required every printer and publisher to obtain a license for starting a press. The Governor General had the right to revoke a license or call for a fresh application. After Adams’ regulations only three Bengali and one Persian newspaper continued publication in Calcutta and Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s Mirat-ul-Akbar had to stop publication. William Bentinck adopted a liberal attitude towards press and Metcalf, ‘the Liberator of Indian Press’ repealed the ordinance of 1823. But the emergency caused by the revolt of 1857, led the government to impose restrictions on the press through the Licensing Act, 1857 which prohibited keeping or using of printing presses without a license from the Government.

The Registration Act, 1867 required every book or newspaper to have printed legibly on it the name of printer and publisher and the place of printing. Moreover, within one month of publication of a book a copy of the book had to be supplied free of charge to the local government. During the Lytton Governor Generalship, the infamous vernacular Press Act 1878 was designed to ‘better control’ the vernacular press to empower the government with more effective means of punishing and repressing seditious writings. The Vernacular Press Act required the publisher to enter into a bond undertaking not to publish anything likely to excite feelings of disaffection against the government. Moreover, no appeal could be made to a court of law against the decision of the magistrate.

In 1908, the Newspaper Act empowered the magistrates to confiscate printing press and the Local Government was empowered to annul any declaration made by the printer and publisher of an offending newspaper. The Indian Press Act, 1910 empowered the Local Government to demand at the time of Registration security not less than Rs 500 and not more than Rs 2000 and the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 which was amended in 1932 as Criminal Amendment Act included all possible activities calculated to undermine the Government’s authority.

Answer : The Non-Cooperation Movement which was inaugurated by Gandhi on 1 August 1920 took up three main issues, namely-satisfactory solution of the Khilafat question, redressal of the Punjab wrongs and attainment of Swaraj as the ultimate goal of the movement. The movement had a constructive as well as a destructive aspect. Constructive action included raising money for Tilak Swaraj fund, enrollment of members for a volunteer Corps, distribution of spinning wheels to provide work for unemployed, replacement of foreign cloth by handmade Indian cloth and establishment of national educational institutions. Boycott of British goods, schools and colleges owned or recognised by government, law courts, and government offices, surrender of titles and prohibition of liquors constituted destructive agenda of the movement.

Although no progress was made on the issue taken up by the movement, the gains of the movement were not inconsequential. The movement demonstrated clearly that the nationalist movement had the support of the entire nation. It penetrated to all parts of India the least affected among the southern states being Karnataka. It brought into the nationalist movement peasants, workers, artisans, shopkeepers, professionals and white collor workers. Hindu-Muslim unity prominently featured in the movement. With the launching of the Non-Cooperation Movement Gandhian leadership was explicitly recognised. The Cong-ress, with this movement became an organisation which believed in direct action. A new unity of purpose emerged within the Congress, which was demonstrated by its newly adopted flag, slogan, dress and language.

Answer : The partition of Bengal, according to British was meant to improve the administration of an oversized and under-administered province. Its real objective, however, was to create a Hindu-Muslim divide and to rupture the growing solidarity of the political community in Bengal which had become the nerve centre of Indian nationalism. Calcutta was the centre from which the Congress Party was manipulated throughout the whole Bengal and indeed the whole of India. It was not only the capital of British-India but also the chief centre of trade and judicial administration. Most of the contemporary newspapers, which aroused feeling of nationalism among the educated middle class in India, used to be published from here. British wanted to curb Bengali influence by placing them under two administrations and by reducing them to a minority in Bengal itself, as after partition Bengal proper was to have 17 million Bengali and 37 million Oriya and Hindi speaking people. Moreover, its purpose was also to create Hindu-Muslim tension by dividing Bengal on the basis of religion as the proposed new province was to be a Muslim-majority province (with 18 million Muslims and 12 million Hindus).

Answer : The Theosophical society was founded by westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture. Madame H.P. Blavatsky of Russo-German birth laid the foundation of the movement in the United States in 1875. Later colonel M.S. Olcott of the US Army joined her. In 1882 they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar, an outskirt of Madras. The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation etc. The society accepts the Hindu beliefs in reincarnation, karma and draws inspiration from the philosophy of the Upanishads and Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta school of thought. It aims to work for universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of caste, race, creed, sex or colours. The theosophical Movement came to be allied with Hindu Renaissance. In India the movement became somewhat popular with the election of Mrs. Annie Besant (1917) as its President. In India, under her guidance, Theosophy became a movement of Hindu Revival. However, to the average Indian the philosophy of Theosophical Movement seemed rather vague and deficient in positive programme and as such its impact was limited to a small segment of the westernised class.

Answer : The Hartog Committee was appointed in 1929 to look into the deterioration of quality and lowering of standard of education in India. The Committee emphasized the national importance of primary education, but condemned the policy of hasty expansion in education. The committee recommended the policy of consolidation and improvements. For secondary education, the committee reputed that the system was dominated by the Matriculation Examination and many under-serving students considered it the path to university education. It recommended a selective system for admission and urged the retention of most of the boys intended for rural pursuits at the Middle vernacular school stage. After the middle stage students should be diverted to diversified courses leading to industrial and commercial carriers. Moreover, the committee pointed out the weakness of university education and criticized the policy of indiscriminate admission which led to lowering of standards. It recommended that all efforts should be concentrated in improving university work in confining the university to its proper function of giving good advanced education to students who are fit to receive it and, in fact making the university a more fruitful and less disappointing agency in the life of a community.

Answer : Upanishads: The literal meaning of Upanishad is ‘to sit near someone’. It marks the culmination of Vedic thought and is about 108 in number. It contains deep speculations of philo-sophic character which revolves around the concept of Atma (self) and Brahma (universal soul).

Vajrayana: Vajrayana or ‘the vehicle of thunderbolt’ owes its origin to Buddhism and appeared in eastern India during the seventh and eighth century. The sect was based on primitive cult and rituals and full of magical formulae. The chief divinity of this sect was the ‘Tara’ (the spouse of Buddha).

Kumarsambhav: Kumarsham­bhav is a classical literature in sanskrit by great poet Kalidasa. The book narrates shiva-parvati marriage scenes and birth of Kartikey.

Razmnama: Different sections of Mahabharata were translated into Persian language by many scholars during Mughal period and compiled under the title Razmnama.

Mirza Haider: Mirza Haider was a historian of early Mughal period whose famous book Tarik-i-Rashidi deals with the rise of Babur in India and also describes Humayun’s tale of rise and fall.

Muhammad Barkatullah: Was a revolutionary who went to Japan and later joined Ghadar Party; became PM in the provisional government at Kabul under the leadership of Mahendra Pratap. He went to Europe and worked for India’s freedom. In Germany, he edited and published Naya Islam.

Sohan Singh Bhakha: Born in 1870 in Punjab, he was a freedom fighter who migrated to America in 1907 and founded Pacific Coast Hindi Association with the help of Lala Hardayal. He also worked for the Kishan Sabha and Communist Party of India.

Alluri Sitaramaraju: He led a forest movement in the Rampa region of Andhra Pradesh against the new forest laws which curbed the land and grazing rights of local people.

C.N. Annadurai: Known as ‘Anna’ he was a scholar, social reformer and a political leader. He joined Justice Party and worked for labourer’s cause. He edited ‘Kudi Arsu’ and started his own weekly ‘Dravida Nadu’ in 1942. Anna distinguished himself as an eminent leader of Dravida Kazhagam (DK). Later, he organised Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam which served as great political force in Madras. He also became chief minister of Tamilnadu.

Jadong: Jadong is a famous trekking site in Sikkim at an attitude of 3237 metres.

Jadunath Sarkar: Born in 1870 in Calcutta, he is well known for his historical works. Some of his famous books are—Aurangzeb and Shivaji, Later Mughals and Fall of Mughal Empire.

Nazir Hasan: He worked with Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan for the socio-cultural and economic upliftment of muslims and was an ardent supporter of Aligarh Movement.

Subhas Gupte: He was a famous leg spinner of 50s and 60s. He was bestowed C.K. Naidu Award for the year 2000 and 2001 respectively.

Acharya Nirmalya: He is associated with Bengali films and literatures. He wrote an essay on the early age of cinema, titled “Chalchitre Pratham Yuga”.

Jyotiba Phule: Born in Maharashtra, worked hard for the emencipation of women, removal of untouchability and welfare of the Harijans. He established the Satya Sodak Samaj (1973) and Dinabandhu Sarvajanik Sabha (1884).

Answer : In 1909, the government introduced some constitutional reforms in India, to please the moderate leaders and strengthen their position in the Congress. These reforms are named after Lord Minto, the Viceroy of India and Lord Morley, the secretary of the state for India, who piloted the bill through the British Parliament. Though it was the first true attempt at introducing a representative and popular element, it was not free from flaws. Given the colonial nature of the government, the reforms of 1909 also proved to be another instrument in the hands of the British government to perpetuate its rule in India.

The Reforms: The number of elected members in the Imperial Legislative Council and the provincial Legislative council was increased. In the provincial councils, non-official majority was introduced but since some of these non-officials were nominated and not elected, the overall non-elected majority remained.

In the Imperial Legislative Council, of the total 68 members, 36 were to be the officials and of the 32 non-officials, 5 more to be nominated. Of the 27 elected non-officials, 8 seats were reserved for the Muslims under separate electorates (only Muslims could vote here for the Muslim candidates) while 6 seats were reserved for the British capitalists, 2 for the landlords and 13 seats came under general electorate.

The elected members were to be indirectly elected. The local bodies were to elect an electoral college, which in turn would elect members of provincial legislatures, who in turn would elect members of the central legislature.

Besides separate electorates for the Muslims, representation in the excess of the strength of their population was accorded to the Muslims. Also, the income qualification for Muslim voters was kept lower than that for Hindus.

Powers of legislature both at the centre and in provinces-were enlarged and the legislature could now pass resolutions (which may not be accepted), ask questions and supplementary, vote separate items in the budget but the budget as a whole could not be voted upon.

One Indian was to be appointed to the Viceroy’s executive council and Satyendra Sinha was the first to be appointed in 1909.

The reforms of 1909 were infecting framed to confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide the nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians and as such the reforms of 1909 afforded no answer to the Indian political problems. Lord Morley made it clear that, colonial self government (as demanded by the congress) was not suitable for India, and he was against introduction of Parliamentary or responsible government in India. In this context one can quote Nehru’s remarks on the reforms of 1909, “Political barrier was created round them, isolating them from the rest of India and reversing the unifying and amalgamating process which had been going on for centuries. The barrier was a small one at first, for the electorates were very limited, but with every extension of franchise it grew and affected the whole structure of political and social life like some cancer which corrupted the entire system”. Thus the provision of excessive weightage, separate electorate and preferential voting rights for the Muslims introduced a cardinal problem and ground of controversy at every revision of the Indian electoral system which ultimately resulted in the partition of the country.

Answer : During the British rule there were many big and small princely or native states (besides the British India consisting of several provinces) which were indirectly ruled by the British through the princes and chiefs themselves.

After World War II began and a resolution of non-cooperation was adopted by the congress, the British Government tried to break the dead lock through the Cripps Mission (1942), Wavell Plan (1945), Cabinet Mission (1946) and Attlee’s Statement (Feb.1947). But the British Para-mountecy over the Indian states according to the Indian Independence Act, 1947, was to lapse on Aug 15, 1947. The states were allowed according to the Mountbatten Plan to join either of India or Pakistan or to retain their independence.

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel who took the charge of states department (July 1947), tackled this problem of integration of the states with great ability. He was ably assisted in this task by V.P. Menon. Under the pressure of the popular states people’s movement and guided by the masterful diplomacy of Patel, rulers of all the 652 states with exception of Junagarh, Kashmir and Hyderabad had signed the Instrument of Accession by August 15, 1947.

The Nawab of Junagarh announced accession to Pakistan even though the people of the state desired to join India. In the end, Indian troops occupied the state. A plebiscite that follo-wed went in favour of joining India. The Nizam of Hyderabad made an attempt to claim an independent status but was forced to accede in 1948 after an internal revolt had broken out in its Telengana region and after Indian troops had marched into the city and subdued the Razakars. The Maharaja of Kashmir also delayed accession to India or Pakistan even though the popular forces led by the National Conference wanted accession to India. However, the maharaja acceded to India in Oct. 1947 after Pathans and irregular armed forces of Pakistan invaded Kashmir.

Thus, it was Patel by employing diplomacy and the policy of blood and iron was able to effect the integration of the princely states into the Union of India, a task highly commendable to have done in just 365 days. The Indian states thus lost their identity and became part of one uniform political set up.

Answer : Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. His effort in South Africa was well known not only among the educated but also among the masses. He decided to tour the country the next one year to familiar with condition of the masses especially of the people of rural India. He also decided not to take any position on any political matter for at least one year. He was convinced that the only technique capable of meeting the nationalist aims was a non-violent Satyagraha. He also said that he would join no political organisation unless it too accepted the creed of non-violent Satyagraha.

During 1917 and 1918, Gandhi was involved in three struggles in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda before he launched the Rowlatt Saty-agraha. Out of 3 above mentioned places 2 were from rural India and thus Gandhi’s choice of Cha-maparan and Kheda shows his commitment towards rural India. He was trying to base his activities in rural India and thus cultivated cordial relations with the masses which were very necessary to fight against the colonial power.

Gandhi was the leader of masses who realised its potential to shake the very foundation of British Raj. He knew that only 85% of the populations, who live in rural India, have power and courage to challenge the British might.

Farmers, women and people from working classes started participating in the National Movement of the country. Right from the Champaran Satyagraha to Quit India Movement, masses played very important role to carry forward mission of revolutionary leaders.

Again Gandhi’s scheme of education i.e. Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) also focuses on the needs of rural India. The main principle behind this scheme was ‘Learning through authority’. Gandhi thought that western education had created a gulf between the educated few and the masses and had also made the educated elite ineffective. Thus the thrust of Gandhian movement was rural India.

Answer : The tribal people organised the most militant outbursts and insurrections during the 19th century. The colonial administration ended their relative isolation and brought them fully under the ambit of colonialism. The main reasons for their resentment were as follows:

The colonial administration recognized tribal chiefs as Zamindars and introduced a new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products. It encouraged the influx of Christian missionaries (esp in Bengal and Assam) and thus created serious threat to the tribal religion and culture.

It introduced a large number of outsider middlemen (money-lenders, traders and revenue farmers) among the tribals. They increasingly took possession of tribal lands and trapped the tribals in debt-web and this brought the tribal people within the fold of the colonial economy and exploitation. The large scale influx of non-tribal people in the tribal region also created serious threat to the tribal identity.

It tightened the control (restriction on shifting cultivation and attempts to curb the use of timber and grazing facilities) of forest zones for revenue purpose (from 1867 onwards) and this shattered the very basis of tribal economy. The oppression and extortion by policemen and other petty official aggravated the tribal distress. The system of begar (unpaid forced labour) was intensified and expanded.

The tribal response included occasional violent outbursts as well as movements for internal religion and socio-cultural reforms. The rebels took the form of spontaneous attacks on outsiders (Dikus) looting of their property and expelling them from their villages. This ultimately resulted in clashes with colonial authority.

Often religious and charismatic leaders emerged at the stage and promised a divine intervention and end of all suffering and encouraged the fellow tribals to fight against the foreign authority. The movement of revitalization internal religious and social cultural reforms borrowed elements from Christianity or Hinduism and promised miraculous entry into a golden age. This generally followed in the wake of defeated uprisings and murder of traditional chiefs.

Answer : The Moderates: The congress programme during the first phase of the Freedom Movement (1885-1905) was very moderate. It was dominated by affluent middle class intelligentsia (men of legal, medical engineering, literary pursuits and journalists). They strongly believed in the essential sense of justice and the goodness of the British nation and followed the policy of gradualism and constitutionalism. It was their belief that the British rule in India was in the interest of the Indians and supersession would bring anarchy and disorder. Thus they followed the legally (constitutionally) approved methods of political agitation, prayer, petition and protest (3 ps policy).

It demanded mild constitutional reforms, economic relief, administrative reorganisation and protection of civil rights. A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was about the economic drain of India.

Political methods of the moderates were constitutional agitations within four walls. Moderates believed that the British people and parliament wanted to be just to India but did not know the true state of affairs.

Other demands included the organisation of the provincial councils, simultaneous holding of examinations for the ICS in India and England. The separation of the judiciary from the executive and the repeal of the Arms Act. The appointment of Indians to the commissioned ranks in the Army, the reduction of military expenditure and Indianisation of higher grades of the admin-istrative service on economic, political and moral grounds.

During the first 20 years (1885-1905) there was practically no change in the Congress programme. The leaders were cautious in their demands. They did not want to annoy the government and incur the risk of suppression.

To pacify them, the government was forced to pass the Indian councils Act, 1892 but the moderates raised the slogan “no taxation without representation”. However, during this period, a general impression grew that the moderates were political mendicants, only petitioning and praying to the British Government for petty concessions. This was because early Congress leaders believed that the presence of the British administration was important for continued political progress in India.

The Extremists: Extremism did not spring up suddenly in the Indian National Movement in the first decade of 20th century, rather it had been growing slowly though invisibly since the revolt of 1857 which extremists termed as the first effort to achieve ‘Swaraj’. Early English educated liberals (moderates) who were highly influenced by the west gradually alienated from the masses of India. This gap (between masses and highly Analicized leaders) was bridged by a band of political workers under the leaders like B.G. Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh etc who derived inspiration from traditional cultural values and were ardent nationalists who wanted to have relations with other countries in terms of equality and self-respect. They opposed the moderates who were considered by them to be servile to the British. They considered the struggle between the rulers and the ruled was inevitable and argued for building a new India of their dreams in which the British had no contribution to make.

The basic cause of rise of extremism in the first decade of the 20th century is as follows:

Recognition of true exploitative nature of British rule in India. Reaction to increasing westernisation and thereby alienation from traditional culture of the Indian population under British rule.

Dissatisfaction with the achievements of the Congress under Moderate Leadership. Deteri-orating economic condition of India-famines in 1896-97 and 1899-1900.

Contemporary international influences, nationalist movement in Egypt, Persia, Turkey and Russia and Japan’s victory over Russia (1905) were source of new hopes and new aspirations.

Curzon’s reactionary policies, Calcutta Corporation Act 1899, Official Secrets Act, Indian Universities Act (1904) etc. the partition of Bengal and the repressive policy of the govt, against the Anti-Partition movement. It is true that the early nationalists (Moderates) could not gain substantially in the form of reforms for which they agitated and also they could not master popular support from the Indian masses.

Nevertheless it did succeed in giving to the ignorant people a unified political outlook by bringing them to the art of political work, in popularizing the idea of democracy and nationalism and exposing the evils of the British rule the economic context of these policies through which India was gradually made a supplier of raw materials, a market of British manufacture and a fertile field for foreign investment.

On the whole, it was this early spade work done by the moderates that prepared the launching ground for a more vigorous national upsurge in later years.

Answer : The history of population growth in India is fairly in tune with the demographic transition model. The demographic history of India is divided into four distinct phases.

1. Phase (Pre-1921 period): During this phase of stagnant population, both the fertility and mortality rates were high (due to underdeve-lopment, epidemic, famine etc.), leaving out small scope for population increase.
2. Phase (1921-1951): This period witnessed steady population growth as mortality rate showed declining trend due to improvement in health conditions after 1921.
3. Phase (1951-81): A steep fall in the mortality rate after independence coupled with high fertility rate resulted into very high rate of population growth often termed as population explosion.
4. Phase (Post 1981 period): In fact signs of decline in the growth rate of population were seen in 1971 itself but the 1981 census established this downward trend which is continuing in 1991 and 2001 census. Fertility rate is also declining in this phase.

Answer : Arthasastra: Of all the secular literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the single most important source is Arthasashtra written by Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. This work is a comprehensive treatise on statecraft and public administration.

Sarnath Pillar: Sarnath is situated near Varanasi. Gautam Buddha delivered his first sermon at this palce which is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartana’. Asoka built a pillar which became famous as Sarnath Pillar. Sarnath was an important centre for art during ancient period.

Khudai Khidmatgar: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (literally, God’s servants) a group of dedicated workers in 1929. The aim of the new fraternity was to inculcate among its followers the idea of service and the desire to serve their country and the people in the name of God.

Mahayana Cult: After the Second Council, held 100 years after the Buddha, at Vaishali, two great schools-the Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas came into being. Gradually the Mahasanghikas paved the way for the emergence of Mahayana cult in the 18 Century AD at the Fourth Council held during the reign of Kanishka. The Mahayanists gave prominence to the Bodhisattva.

Ghulam giri: Jyotiba Phule organised a powerful non-Brahmin movement. To liberated the depressed classes and made them conscious of their rights by educating them, he founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873. To carry forward his anti-Brahmin activities in an organised manner, he wrote two critical works Sarvajanik Satyadhar Pustak and Ghulam giri.

Answer : The freedom with partition formula was coming to be widely accepted. The Plan had a major innovation. It was the immediate transfer of power on the basis of grant of dominion status with a right of secession thus obviating the need to wait for an agreement in the constitutent assembly on a new political structure.

The part which ruled out the independence of princely states and Bengal was an improvement and commendable provision. Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan was also ruled out. Sindh was left to take its own decision and referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide the fate of these areas. Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus and Muslim, to vote for Pakistan. If a simple majority of other group voted for Pakistan, then Pakistan will emerge.

It paved the way formally for India’s and Pakistan’s independence. It was realistic, according to the then circumstances and pragmatic.

Answer : The recommendations of Montford Reforms created Chamber of Princess or Narendra Mandal as a consultative and advisory body having no say in the internal affairs of individual states and having no powers to discuss matters concerning existing rights and freedoms. But the question of extent of sovereignty was still undefined. The Butler Committee in 1927 was set up to examine the nature of relationship between the states and government. It gave the following recommendations:

• Paramountcy must remain supreme
• It must fulfil its obligation, adopting and defining itself according to the shifting nece-ssities of time and progressive development of states.
• States should not be handed over to an Indian government in British India, responsible to an Indian Legislature.
• But it could be done with the consent of states.

Thus paramountcy was left undefined, which was not in concordance with the sentiment of the princes. This hydra-headed creature was left to feed on usage, crown’s prerogative and the princes implied consent. The popular sentiment in Indian intelligences was against British paramountcy and the consent required for the integration of the princely states.

Answer : In March 1944, Mr. C. Rajgo­p-alachari had evolved a formula with full approval of Gandhiji for Congress-Muslim League Cooperation on the basis of Pakistan. It had provision like—the League would endorse the demand for independence and cooperate with Congress in forming a provisional government for the transitional period. And at the end of the war a plebiscite of all the inhabitants in the muslim majority areas in the Northwest and the North-East would decide whether or not they should form a separate state. In the event of separation, agreements would be made for defense, communication and other essential matters. These terms are to be binding only in case of transfer by England of full powers and responsibility.

Initially, Jinnah had written to Gandhiji for elucidation of various points. Gandhiji in offering the clarification, added that the Lahore resolution of Muslim League being indefinite, C.R. has taken from it the substance and given it a shape. Jinnah in reply claimed that C.R. had mutilated that substance. Jinnah was contending that the Muslims of India as a separate nation had the right of self-determination and muslims alone had the right to vote for partition and not the whole population of the disputed area. Thus, he denied the rights of non-muslims. Jinnah wanted congress to accept the two nation theory.

The congress was concerned with the achievement of Independence and to that end, was prepared to pay the necessary price for muslim cooperation and support, but Jinnah had no such intention of independence for the whole country.Jinnah was also opposed to common centre concerned with Defense, Commerce, Comm-unication etc.

Answer : The duo of A.O. Hume and Dadabhai Nauroji were the main propagators of Indian cause in Britain. Through the Irish Home rule experience they propagated the same for India initially through papers like—India. Indian Home rule was formally launched on 7th June 1916 in London with the help of British sympathisers and Indians abroad. Major D. Graham Pole became its first General Secretary.

The league was declared as an independent political party. Its demand and aspiration were often released through pamphlets, the most famous of which was titled “What India want”. Annie Besant also played a role in its growth and propagation in Britain as well as in India.

Answer : After the failure of Cripps Mission, there was a feeling of frustration among the sections of the people. The Congress which had done nothing so far to embarrass the British government apart from demanding a constituent assembly to frame a new constitution for the country could no longer sit on the fence when the Japanese were virtually knocking at the door. Thus congress saw in it an opportunity and right moment to wage a nonviolent mass struggle to completely overthrow the British Yoke.

The Communist Party of India did not participate in the movement. It called on the people of India to join hands with the Soviet Union, Britain and others who were suffering at the hands of Germany & Japan.

But other nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha accused the Communist Party as pursuing an anti-national policy and supported the movement.

Muslim League remained indifferent and was more interested in propounding the two nation theory and creation of Pakistan.

Answer : The national leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta. D.E. Wacha, W.C. Banerjee, S.N. Banerjee who dominated the congress policies during 1885 to 1905 were staunch believers in liberalism and moderate politics and thus labeled as moderates. The main objectives of the Indian National movement up to 1905 were as follows:

1. Politicise and politically educate people.
2. Develop and propagate an anti colonial nationalist ideology.
3. Formulate and present popular demands before the government with a view to unify the people over a common economic and political programme.
4. Carefully promote and nurture the feeling of Indian nationhood.

The moderate political activity involved constitutional agitation within the confines of law and showed a slow, orderly political progress. The moderates believed that the British wanted to be basically just to the Indians but were not aware of the real conditions. Therefore, if public opinion could be created in the country and public demands are presented to the government through resolution, petitions, meetings etc. the authorities would concede these demands gradually. To achieve these ends, they worked on a two pronged methodology- one, create a strong public opinion to arouse consciousness and national spirit and then educate and unite people on common political questions. Two, to persuade the British Government and British public opinion to introduce reforms in India. For this purpose a British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London in 1899. Dadabhai Naoroji spent a substantial portion of his life and income campaigning for India’s case abroad.

Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening of all Indians and above all, the feeling of belongingness to one nation. They however, failed to widen their democratic base and scope of their demands. The moderate phase of the national movement had a narrow social base and the masses played a passive role. This was because the early nationalists lacked political faith in the masses; they felt that there were numerous divisions and subdivisions in the Indian society, and the masses were generally ignorant and had conservative ideas and thoughts. But they failed to realise that it was only during the freedom struggle and political participation that these diverse elements ever came together.

Answer : For more reasons than one, the revolt of 1857 marks a turning point in the history of India. In a sense it demonstrated that the hold of the company on India was still rather weak, and its lessons continued to influence British administration in India for several generations. It directly produced three important changes in the system of administration and the policy of government.

Firstly, the control of the Indian Government was finally assumed by the crown. The Governor-General received the new title of viceroy. The assumption of the government of India by the sovereign of Great Britain was announced by Lord Canning at a darbar at Allahabad in a proclamation issued on 1st November, 1858, in the name of Queen. The Queen’s proclamation, described as the Magna Carta of the Indian people, disclaimed all desire for the extension of British territorial possession in India.

Secondly, the army, which took the initiative in the outbreak, was thoroughly reorganised; and, for the next fifty years, “The idea of division and counterpoise” dominated the British military policy in India. The presidency armies were kept entirely separate till 1893; the European element in them was strengthened, and placed in sole charge of some essential services; and the number of European soldiers was increased.

Thirdly, the British government now took up a new attitude towards the Indian states. These states were hence forth to recognise the paramountcy of the British crown and were to be considered as parts of a single charge.

The revolt of 1857 though completely suppressed had shaken the British rule in India. From now on the reactionary and vested interest were well protected and encouraged and became pillars of British rule in India: The policy of divide and rule was deliberately persuade and made the main prop of British control; tight European control over key positions both in civil and military administration was maintained.

The revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a different era. The era of territorial aggrandisement gave place to the era of economic exploitation.

Answer : After the First World War in 1918, British and its allied powers decided to divide Turkey among themselves. Turkey supported Germany in the First World War. Germany lost the war and Turkey had to face the music. British and its allies also resolved to dissolve the designation of Khilafat. The designation of Khilafat always remained holy and sacred in the Muslim history. Khalifat is considered the vicegerent of Allah on the Earth. Therefore, the Muslims became infuriated on this unholy act of the British government. Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar and Maulana Shaukat Ali Johar along with other Muslim leaders started a movement called the Khilafat Movement.

Aims and Objectives of the Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat Movement aimed at presenting the Ottoman Empire and the continuity of the temporal power of Khalifat to protect Muslim lands without any mandate. Mohammad Ali put forward the demands of the Khilafat Movement.

Demands of the Khilafat Movement: The demands of the Khilafat committee were as under: The Turkish Empire should not be dismembered, the Holy place should remain in the custody of Turkish Government and the institution of Caliphate must be retained.

Causes of the Failure of Khilafat Movement: Gandhi also joined Muslims in their Khilafat Movement. In fact, he wants to protect the British government and needed autonomy of India through this movement. Therefore, he joined the Khilafat Movement for achieving his coveted plan. Apparently, he was showing that he was sincere to the Muslim cause.

After the tragedy of Chauri Chaura, Gandhi left the Khilafat Movement saying that he did not like violence. After Hijrat Movement, the Muslims had to come back to the Sub-continent but now they had lost their hearth and home. They had to face the severe circumstances in the Khilafat Movement.“In 1924, Mustafa Kamal Ata Turk assumed power in Turkey and abolished the institution of Khilafat himself. This act of him really disappointed Muslims. Thus the Khilafat Movement came to an end without achieving its goals.

Effects of Khilafat Movement: The Credit Side of Khilafat Movement is it trained Muslims for political action and agitation. They learned that Hindus can never be friends of Muslims. Their differences are too deep-rooted to weed out. The Muslims got acquainted of their political power and destroyed the myth of Muslims loyalty to the British.

Every movement against the British rule left its good as well as bad effects on the people. After Khilafat Movement Muslims of the Sub-continent become united, strong and conscious about their separate identity which led them towards final destination. This was the real credit which Muslims derived from Khilafat Movement.

Answer : When Gandhiji withdrawn the Noncooperation Movement after the incident of Chauri-Chaura, there was no mass movement effectively held, though some low key movements like peasant and local movement and revolu-tionary activities were held. Gandhiji presented his eleven point demands but there were no positive response to it. So Gandhiji decided to launch the salt satyagraha in 1930 as the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM). The congress working committee had invested Gandhiji with full powers to launch this CDM.

The salt satyagraha was a move on the part of Gandhiji to win sympathy of peasants as well as lower classes of society. CDM was started on March 12, 1930 with 78 satyagrahis and they marched to Dandi and violated the salt law. Though Gandhi wanted to arouse a nationwide movement by common salt which is used by all irrespective of religion, caste etc. Resultantly the whole country joined CDM. Other local groups also violated the salt law at various places. School, Colleges, Government offices, War boycotted, foreign clothes were burnt, picketing and nonpayment of taxes were done.

After making salt at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, producing salt and addressing meetings on the way. His party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 25 miles south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana.

The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. Over 80,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha. However, it failed to result in major concessions from the British.

Answer : (a) Prarthana Samaj: In 1863, Keshab Chandra Sen founded prarthana samaj in Bombay to spread his ideas (a) Disapproval of Caste system (b) women’s education (c) widow remarriage and (d) raising the age of marriage.

(b) Gadar Party: A revolutionary group organised around a weekly newspaper ‘The Gadar’ with its headquarters at San Francisco. These revolutionaries formed of mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who had migrated from the Punjab in search of better employment opportunities to USA and Canada.

(c) Satyashodhak Samaj: Jotiba Phule founded “the Satyashodhak Samaj” (truth seeker’s society) in 1873, the leadership of the Samaj coming from the backward classes, Malis, tellis, Kunbis etc. It was a powerful movement against upper caste domination and Brahminical supremacy.

(d) Champaran Satyagraha: The champaran movement of 1917 was against Tinkathia system, imposed on indigo planters to cultivate indigo. Gandhiji and his associates forced the government to appoint a committee of enquiry on which Ghandhiji served as a member.

(e) ICCR: The ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations) was established and formerly inaugurated in 1950, with Maulana Azad, as the former president. Its objectives are to establish, revive and strengthen cultural relations and mutual understanding between India and other countries.

Answer : The partition of Bengal took place in 1905. The Swadeshi Movement was the product of partion of Bengal. These two events were intertwined. The Swadeshi movement was used as weapon to oppose the partition of Bengal. In the Public meetings against partition, pledge to boycott foreign goods were taken. On August 7, 1905 in a meeting in the Calcutta Town Hall, the formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was taken out. The message of boycott and Swadeshi was propagated in every hook and corner of Bengal and gradually it was spread on other parts of India also. This movement was soon taken out to Maharashtra by Bal Gandadhar Tilak especially in Poona and Bombay and then covered whole of Maratha region. Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh led it to the Punjab and adjoining areas, Syed Haider Raza in Delhi and Chidambaram Pillai in Madras. Soon in the Year 1905, extremist took over dominance in Bengal and led this movement further ahead. They transformed this movement into mass struggle.

People in fever of this movement burnt or discarded the foreign products and embraced Swadeshi products, to show their patriotism later on, this movement did not confine par se only to the Political meetings and classes but tried to involve the masses. Huge Public meetings were organized were masses use to join, to show their Solidarity. Extremist involved the masses into this struggle which until how moderates were unable to do. This was the first time when the spirit in public was to be expressed and they had a chance to involve in freedom movement. So, masses joined this movement eagerly. They openly boycotted foreign goods and advocated Swadeshi.

Picketing was used by several local regional leaders to spread Swadeshi and boycott and make it successful.

Answer : The freedom-with-partition formula was widely accepted well before Mountbatten came. One major innovation (by V.P. Menon) was the immediate transfer of power on the basis of grant of dominion status, thus obviating the need to wait for an agreement in the constituent assembly on a new political Structure.

Main Points of the Plan was

1. If the areas with the majority of the Muslim population so desired, they should be allowed to form a separate Dominion. A new Constituent Assembly would be set up for that purpose. But there would be a partition of Bengal and the Punjab if the representatives of the Hindu majority districts in the Legislatures of those Provinces so desired.
2. The referendum would be taken in the North-West Frontier Province to ascertain whether it should join Pakistan or not.
3. The district of Sylhet would be joined to the Muslim area in Bengal after the views of the people had been ascertained by a referendum.
4. Boundary Commissions would be set up to define the boundaries of the Hindu and Muslim Provinces in Bengal and the Punjab.
5. The Princely States would be free to join either of the two Dominions or to remain independent, and whatever treaties were signed with them would soon end.
6. Parliament would undertake legislation to transfer power before the end of 1947 to one or two successor authorities on a Dominion Status basis, but without prejudice to the Constituent Assemblies deciding whether to stay in the Commonwealth or not.

Gandhi and Azad were against partition, so they clearly ruled out implementation of Mountbatten Plan. They even opposed the view of Vallabh Bhai Patel and others that in the worsened situation, partition would become necessary. But ultimately looking out the situation at last they had to give their assent to partition. This was largely in the wake of communalization of people.

While Azad wrote, the people had not accepted the partition with free mind rather they had accepted with seer anger and resentment.

Answer : The growing strength of terrorist movement was being felt by the Britishers since long time back in India. For this they also tried to check their growth by applying several repressive methods against such terrorist groups. However in the long run British succeeded in putting bolt over the growth of terrorist organization in India. This forced terrorist organization to find some other alternative space for their sustained growth somewhere outside Indian territory, where British influence could be less felt.

In this way, they could settle in countries like Canada, Germany, Russia, and Japan where Britishers had little to say regarding their terrorist growth. In 1905, Shyamji Krishna Verma established ‘India Home Rule Society’ in London and later on India House. These become shelters and offices of terrorist movements.

Likewise, Lala Hardayal founded ‘Gadar’ movement in San Francisco to encourage such activities, as their objective, in 1913. All these activities were aimed at throwing out the British Government from India. They were inspired by patriotic feelings.

Answer : At the time of independence that is in Post Second World War period the world was divided into two power blocks capitalist and socialistic ideology, largely led USA and USSR respectively.

India being a newly independent country, chosen its independent ideology was not influenced by either block. This independent ideology was Non-alignment led by India, Egypt and Indonesia. Later this was joined many other newly independent developing counties.

Nehru played an important role in popularising the Non-Alignment policy. It was to remain unaffected from both the groups and further their interest. This helped India in achieving its unique independent identity in world’s foreign politics. This led India in achieving its political importance in the international field.

Today, when the group of Non-Aligned countries has emerged as a major group with a lot of weight in its voice in the international sphere, it seems that Mr. Nehru was justified in adopting the Principle of Non-alignment as the corner stone of India’s foreign Policy.

Answer : (i) Sangam Literature: he word sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha which means a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an academy of poets and bards who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Pandyan kings. The Sangam literature which combines idealism with realism and classic grace with indigenous industry and strength is rightly regarded as constituting the Augustan age of Tamil literature. It deals with secular matter relating to public and social activity like government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture etc. So most of the Sangam literature have been produced during third century B.C. to third century A.D.

(ii) Gandhara School of Art: It is an architectural style of Greco-Roman origin, seems to have flourished largely during the Kushan dynasty. The Gandhara School incorporated many motifs and techniques from Classical Roman art, including vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands, tritons, and centaurs. The basic iconography, however, remained Indian.

Answer : British advent in India, Indian society was caught in the whirlpool of bitter misunderstanding and communal discord.

The communal problem in India is of recent origin later half of the 19th century. Moreover, the communal problem of its base was more politically motivated than religiously oriented. The founding fathers of the communal triangle in modern India were the British rulers, who were neither the true friends of the Muslim nor the foes of the Hindus.

In 1884, Sir Syed described the Hindus and the Muslim as "two eyes of a beautiful bride i.e. India".

The imperial administrators right from the Secretary of state in England to the District Officer in India, all were convinced that adequate counterpoises to the growing strength of the Indian National Congress must be found, if the British rule in India was to be stable.

The All India Muslim League was formerly inaugurated on 30 December, 1906 primarily to promote among Indian Moslems feelings of Loyalty towards the British Government. As a counterpoise the Muslim League a group of Hindus decided to organise the Hindu Mahasabha in 1910. TheHindu Mahasabha never gained that popularity with the Hindu masses as the Muslim League did with the Muslims in India.

In December 1938, Jinnah made a scathing criticism of the congress and blamed it for killing "every hope of the Hindu-Muslim settlement in the right royal fashion of Fascism. Muslims were not a minority but a nation in the sub-continent. His new political thesis were that democratic parliamentary government was non-workable in India, Indian Muslims wanted to develop their own political, economic, social and cultural institutions according to their own genius.

In March 1940, the Muslim League in the Lahore Session declared that the Muslim in India must have a separate independent state. The Muslim League adopted a resolution in this session, famous as the Pakistan resolution reiterating its total rejection of the scheme of federation embodied in the Government of India Act of 1935.

The League reaffirmed its conviction that "the only solution of India's constitutional problem is the partition of India into independent zones".

Answer : The chief proposals were :

(i)These should be a Union of India embracing both British India and state, which should deal with three subjects. Foreign Affairs, Defence and Communications and have the powers necessary to raise the finances, etc. required for these subjects.

(ii)The Union should have an executive and a legislature of representatives chosen from British India and the states and question concerning a major communal issue in the legislature should require for its decision a majority of the representative present and voting.

(iii) Provinces should be free to form groups with executives and legislatures and each group could determine the provincial subjects to be taken in common.

(iv) The constitution of the Union and the group should contain a provision whereby any province could by majority vote of its legislative assembly cells for a reconsideration of the terms of constitution offer an initial period of ten years.

(v)The formation of an assembly on the basis of the recently elected provincial legislature by allotting to each province a total number of seats proportional to its population roughly in the ratio of one to a million election were to be held by a method of proportional representation.

(vi) The division of the provincial allocation of seats between the main communities in each province in proportion to their respective production.

Both the congress and the league seemed to be in two minds with regard to the cabinet mission proposals; they were reluctant to reject them outright and yet equally unwilling to accept them as they stood.

Muslim League- The thumping majority of the congress in the constituent Assembly both disappointed and irritated the Muslim League.

Jinnah accused the congress of running down the scheme of Interim Government. He feared that the congress would exercise its brute majority to bypass the interests of the Muslims. He intimated the Government of League's decision to boycott the Plan and Launch direct action to realise his goal of Pakistan.

Answer : After Gandhi's arrest (March 1922), there was disintegration, disorganization and demoralisation among nationalist ranks. A debate started among congressmen on what to do during the transition period.

One section led by C.R. Das, Moti Lal Nehru and Ajmal Khan wanted an end to the boycott of legislative councils so that the nationalists could enter them to expose the basic weaknesses of these assemblies and use these councils as an arena of political struggle arouse popular enthusiasm.

Those advocating entry into legislative councils came to be known as the swaragists, while the other school of thought led by Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, Rajgopalachari and M.A. Ansari came to known as the 'No changers'.

Swarajists demands were-

1. the guiding motive of the British in governing India is to secure selfish interests of their own country.
2. present the nationalist demand of self-government in councils.
3. if this demand was rejected, they would adopt a policy of uniform, continuous and consistence destruction within the councils.
4. Their only intention was to use the councils as an arena of political struggle, they had no intention to use the council for their own purpose. assemblies by proportional representation.
5. A common centre would control defence, communication and external affairs.
6. Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.

Answer : Revolt of 1857 started as a part of the religious controversy led by the Indian British soldiers but later on it changed different route that is towards independence movement.

Though enough masses did not take part in this struggle but whatever took part was not totally swayed by religions sentiments solely rather through this struggle they just wanted to get rid of British rule. They had no option other than resulting to the older order by proclaiming Mughal Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of Delhi. In this sense the aim was to free themselves out of British clutch, thus it became war of independence.

However, the Queen of Jhansi and Nana Saheb joined the struggle for their own causes but with the direct aim of throwing away the Yoke of British rule.

Agrarian supported only to reduce burden of taxes and not motivated with the spirit of nationalism or independence.

In this way, the national spirit of freedom was absent throughout the movement as a setback.

Answer : Tibet was ruled by Buddhist monks came and China had nominal but ineffective suzerainty.

British India tried to establish friendly and commercial relations with Tibet but failed.

By 1899, with the arrival of Curzon, Tibet was very much under Russian influence. To follow up strategy of safe borders but actually for the gratification of his imperialistic tendency, Curzon sent a Mission under colonel yound Husband to Tibet.Paving its way the mission reached Lhesa in August, 1904 at dictated a treaty upon it with terms: (1) to pay Rs. 75 Lacs in indemnity with installments of one lakh every year. (2) retaining control over the Chumbi Valley till the payment as security, and (3) Trade marts of British at Yatung, Cyantse Gartol, etc.

But later on, by the Secretary of State, the terms were relaxed and the Anglo Russian convention 1907 provided no interference in Tibet by Russia or Britain without intermediary of China.

Thus who got from the whole process was only China and not Britain or Russia. The strategic influence could not prevail for a long.

Answer : Great reformerIshwar Chandra Sagar was a legendary figure for his simple living, fearlessness and spirit of self-reliance, and his devotion to education and to the cause of the downtrodden.

His greatest contribution was to the cause of widow's uplift and girls education. He played a great role in the passing of the Laws which made the marriage of widows legal. He personally worked and took part in the first widow remarriage that was performed in Calcutta in 1856.

He was closely associated with Drinkwater Bethume who had started the first school for girls education in Calcutta in 1849. He himself Started a number of schools for girls. It is difficult to imagine how difficult it was to take such issues those days.

Answer : Ramakrishna Paramhansa was a priest in a temple at Dakshineswar near Calcutta. After coming in contact with the leaders of other religions he accepted the sanctity of all faiths.

In order to propaganta the teachings of Ramkrishna and put them into practice, Ramakrishna Mission was founded in 1897 by his favourite disciple Vivekananda.

He had great faith in Indian Culture and religion. His influence over intelligent and educated classes of Bengal gave dynamism to Hinduism. He emphasized knowledge and good conduct. Due to his efforts reformations, dynamism and vitality was infused into Hinduism.

Answer : Tagore experienced and believed in World level humanism. So his poetry include the spirit of humanism in religious aspects also. His poetry, though include religions and philosophical expressions, they are perfectly related to the earthly world. He believed human beings to be the greatest creature of the world are so he respect them and regarded God's worthy creations. He believed firmly in morality and as a better way to follow religion. Hisfaith in karma, according to teachings of the Geeta is also expressed in his poetry.

Answer : Nehru during his tenure of Prime Ministership, has choose mixed economical concepts in planned manner for economic growth. During the first five year plan he choosed rapid industrialisation that also in terms of heavy-industries in public sector. He followed Mahalanobic model to lay down the planning process.

In second plan, he put greater emphasise in the agricultural sector. Technological development were given to increase productivity.

He also took into consideration; the social issues and supported the growth of small industries for rural development.

Answer : Jawaharlal Nehru's political carrier in India started somewhere surrounding Gandhi's established political platform. Jawaharlal Nehru joined Satyagrah movement of Gandhi after the Jallianwala Bagh incidence (1919).

He knew the political and capability of Gandhi right from the beginning so choosed to follow him at his incipient political take-off.

He had deep faith in Gandhi's leadership. Both worked for the freedom of Nation.

Nehru agreed with Gandhi's emphasis on rural development, mass movement and active participation of rural people in national movements. He also followed civil disobedience movement by Gandhi, non cooperation movement and individual Satyagarh movements. Constructive works, boycott and Swadeshi were also the centre point where these two leader view were matching.

If one looks from other angle one can sense Nehru's deviation from Gandhi's principle.

He opposed Gandhi's decision of withdrawal of Disobedience movement. He did not agree at all with methods of movements and strategy at British concept. He also departed from Gandhian concept of economy without heavy industries. He inclined towards socialistic pattern of economy. He accepted the decision of partition of India and Pakistan. He put greater emphasise on scientific development in India and the concept of Gandhi of only practical and basic education also did not match with the concept of Nehru.

All the above mentioned points were, departing from Gandhi's principle, but then also both worked together for the Independence of India and Nehru indeed had great respect for Gandhi.

Answer : In the initial period of Indian nationalist during freedom was more inclined towards economic parameter. Nationalists used economic nationalism to expose British purpose of its colonial rule. In this order Dadabhai Naroji pioneered when for the first he exposed the ugly face British colonial attitude in his book "poverty and UnBritish Rule in India" exposed the nature of economic exploitation of India by British. He first time gave the Drain of wealth theory" in his book to the nation. How British policy aimed at encouraging and promoting industrial growth of England at the cost of India was explained by him. Day to day, worsening were because at British. Indian Handicraft, agriculture, trade and commerce, villages etc. were ruined due to Governmental bias and trade concessions to the British industries.

Even R.C. Dutta in his book called "Economic History of British India" wrote the Indian conditions of economic in three divisions. He exposed how exploitative policy implementation and investment led India to be a subordinated position dependent upon imports from Britain, to which once India exported. He concluded that British industrialised by the exploitation of India.

All these leaders like Feroz Shah Mehta, Tilak etc. Propagated in the same manner the economic nationalism as a part of nationalist movement in its early phase.

Answer : The moderates lose appeal with the Indians failed to elicit desired from the British due to following reasons-

(i)Moderates had deep faith in the constitutional methods to seek their demands. They don'twant to cross the law of land. Their tools for this were resolutions, petitions and organising public meetings did not produce any desired fruits. This does not became famous among masses, they took this method as begging and derogatory to the dignity of India.

(ii)Moderates did not had faith in the masses. They considered masses politically uneducated and un-experience to take part in mass political agitation. Their movement remained isolated to the educated people only.

(iii)While extremists had opposite attitude to that of moderates. They believed in direct protest, self-reliance and constructive programmes in people to involve them in mass movement. Their influence faded away moderates.

On the other land, Moderates could not elicit desired response from the British because of their minority, non-involvement of masses, belief in British to be just. They failed to recognise intentions of British and the Government continued to exploit India.

Answer : Indian trade before coming to Britishers were self-reliant, self dependent based on local growth. With the coming of Britishers, growth of capitalism in the world and especially in England led to large scale manufactured Production Capacity. This in turn required big markets to sell produced goods. It was also necessary to have enough raw material.

To fulfil these requirements of raw-material and markets Capitalists Pressurised Parliamentarians to eliminate monopoly of the East. India Company and introduce free trade policy in India. The Charter act of 1813 was the result to this effect. Then manufactured cotton Textile was started to be staged in Indian market and Indian rural weavers, which was a big exporter once, became an importer of cotton textiles. This free trade policy in the later half of the Nineteenth century gave its bitter fruits to turn self-reliant villages into worker groups of companies. Their small industries were no more in existence.

This policy exploited the Indian economy. This was argumented by with the coming of Railway. Railway helped reach the goods in every parts of country to affect them also. As a result foreign imported goods started to rule the market.

Answer : In February 1946, the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy revolted at many places. They were joined by workers and others. The Navy Ratings rose to revolt against the British for the causes of allowances and emoluments.

Sepoys on the Talwar, a training ship, first raised their voice on the matter for food. Soon the same issue was raised in twenty other ship by Indian soldiers. Indian Navy ratings were treated as interior to those of the British. These non-commissioned soldiers were also partialised in matters of promotions, wages etc by the Government. May a times British officers behave in insulting and derogatory manner. After too much exploitation, soldiers revolted which was called R.I.N. Mutiny. This mutiny was supported by people with cause of strikes and anti-government campaigns. Congress leaders saw that people had raise to protest the Government even without leadership and if not controlled would lead to violent struggle against the Government. In this episode the sprit of people was at apex that they dared to fight the leaders they would fight Government. This incident proved that soldiers were against the Government

Answer : Rabindranath Tagore, viewed democracy as an efficient which search self knowledged public. People require to follow religion and harmony in their mutual relations. No divided voters could make a strong democracy. society with greed and self-centered leaders can never create developed, controlled and efficient democracy. To encourage a successful democracy public should be thought political processes. Spirit of nationalism and sacrifice in leadership is a vital feature, must be present.

Rabindranath Tagores was not satisfied just holding elections and give voting rights to people as it would not fulfil democratic ideals if they are not in line as length with the policy making process.

Answer : Swadeshi movement in Bengal brought widespread changes in the attitude of masses. Swadeshi movement was actually the anger among masses led by popular leaders in response to partition of Bengal (1905).

It united the masses under one umbrella. This was the first time in the history of India that people in large number of came to express their angriness, irrespective of their religion and region.

If forcedpeople to use the products made in their country and boy cotton the foreign goods. As a whole, this movement filled the feeling of nationalism among the masses, and they came to know about their potentiality against colonial government.

Answer : In the Indian states, the prajamandal Movement awake masses for the demand of self government and representation through elections.

There mass movements were inspired by civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, decade. Various states were under these protests. Many Congress leaders supported these movements even Gandhi had done fasts for Rajkot State. Soon, the movement was spread all over India. These mars involvement helped actively in the integration of Indian states in Indian dominion. They proved very significant in unity of India after Independence.

Answer : In October 1943, the viceroy, lord Linthlgow, was succeeded by lord Wavell. The change in the Indian and the international situation necessiated a change in congress policy. He gave Rajaji formula in 1945. It was related to the partition of India and Hindu- Muslim riots. Gandhi supported his formula. He played important role in reconciliation between North-South controversies regarding protesting of Hindi Language in South India. He became Chief Minister of Madras (1937-39) and a minister in centre in 1947.

Answer : (i) Nil Darpan: (in 1860) created a play based on the indigo Revolt. It was to expose British exploitation of India farmers.

(ii) Sarda Sadan: Ramben established it in 1889 in Maharashtra. It was a social organisation committed to fight all forms of social evils.

(iii) Sabarmati Asharam: Gandhi Started his famous Dandi March from this place (Gujarat). It is situated on the bank of Sabarmati.

(iv) Hunter Commission:Established to review the progress of education in the country since the woods dispatch of 1854. Under W.W. Hunter.

(v) Bandi Jiwan: Wrote by a revolutionary martyr, Sachidanath Sanyal about his Kalapani punishment in this Book.

(vi) Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan: Also Known as frontier Gandhi in North West Frontier province. Founded Khudai Khidmalgar in 1929. Awarded Bharat Ratna in 1987.

(vii) Seth Jamnalal Bajaj: Follower of Gandhi occupied the position of the treasurer of congress and held it throughout his life.

(viii) S. Satyamurti: Popularly known as the "fire brand of south India" He participated in the Salt-Satyagraha, led the civil Disobedience Movement.

(ix) Udham Singh: He is known for taking revenge of Jallianwala Bagh incidence with Michal O' Dwyer in 1940

(x) Sarojini Naidu: She was the first lady to preside over the congress Kanpur session in 1925. Got tittle of Nightingle of India. First lady Governor of U.P. State.

(xi) Kulu School:It is a painting style of which the main theme is 'love'. It is unique for its colour mixture, Linear beauty and expressiveness.

(xii) Gopuram: Gopuram is an entrance gate in Dravida style of South Indian temples with magnificent stone carvings.

(xiii) Wahabi Movement: This movement was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly. Movement began in Rohilkhand to popularise the teachings of Waliullah.

(xiv) Bharat Dharma Mahamandal: It was an organisation of orthodox Hindus, established by Pandit Dindayal Sharma in 1890 in Punjab with All India Mission.

(xv) Communal Award: Announced by the British PM Ramsay McDonald in August 1932. This was to provide separate electorates even for depressed classes along with the Muslims and Sikhs and Christians.

Answer : Lapse of paramountcy would have created disorder and disintegration of states resulting in many number of small states.

The doctrine of lapse of paramountcy was applied with Indian freedom to the states. They were now not under British control and were free to decide their fate by themselves. They had tried various schemes to get sovereignty or from a third union. But the June 3rd plan and Attlee's statement had made it clear that the states were free to join any of two dominions. According to their wishes. But lord Mountbatten had clearly refused to allow then sovereign power and separate existence. After independence a state Department was constituted under the interim Government whose incharge was Sardar Patel. He acted very tactfully. Appealed to the patriotic feelings of rulers to join the Indian dominion. They were Join in the matters of defence, communication and external affairs. These three areas were always part of the crown paramountcy. Other areas were to be under the state control. They were convinced that they had nothing to lose because they had never control over these three areas. By august 15, 1947 most of the states were ready to join the Indian dominion. They signed the instrument of Accession. However, Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir had not joined either dominion. Public of Junagarh wanted to join India but Nawab inclined towards Pakistan. But due to people's revolt, Junagarh joined India.

Hyderabad wanted to form a sovereign state. Revolts in Telangana and Indian Army actions resulted in its Berger with India. Some situations arose in Kashmir. Pakistan even sent a military force to pressure the king, but it joined with India. In the way, Sardar Patel efficiency and tactfully led to integration of Indian States.

Answer : By the starting of the 20th century, Indian politics had come under influence and dominance of extremists. Through from the last few years of the 19th century, extremists. came into existence, it was only after the portion of Bengal that they gained popularity.

Causes of Extremism

• Leadershipof moderates had failed to deliver any fruit to India and so young nationalist leaders started to acquire dominant position gradually
• Act of 1982 dissatisfied the congress leaders and so they choose resort to legal and nationalist politics for their demands
• Now they recognized the true nature of the British rule which moderates failed to and had belief in its being just.
• Education gave them a new vision and they got inspiration from India history. Western thinkers also influenced then.
• Increasing westernization of India by British led them to think that they will destroy Indian traditions customs and cultures and so they grew against British.
• Lord Curzon's reactionary policy was also responsible for the growth of extremism. He spoke derogatorily of Indian character is general which hurt pride of Indians.
• Much more was the dissatisfaction with achievements of moderates which pave a way to extremist in Indian politics.

Nature of Extremism

• Extremists had wide social base of politics agitations, they involved locoermiddle class and middle class public apart from educated class of people.
• They did not believe in British rule and believed cowries claim unworthy.
• They got their inspiration form Indian history. Perdition culture and heritage and had faith in messes capacity to participate and sacrifice.
• They also adopted extra constitutional Methods of bycott.
• Their demand was Swaraj as their birthright.

Answer : The first round table conference couldn't set any fruitful result. Main reason was the absence of congress. The government now started to convince congress to participate in the second Round table conform in 1931. Therefore, the government released all congress leaders from Prison on 25th January, 1931. Finally, Gandhiji was convinced to negotiate with the viceroy lord Irwin.So Gandhiji and Lord Irwin met on 19th february1931 and after discussion for fifteen days. They signed an agreement on 5th March, 1931 Known as "Gandhi-Irwin Pact".

This pact included the following matters:-

• All political prisoners, not convicted for violence, to be immediately released.
• Return of confiscated lands not yet sold to third part by the government and remission of all fines not yet collected.
• The government employees who had resigned, to be treated eminently.
• Confederation of right to make salt for consumption to villages a long the sea coast.
• Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing All these demands of congress were accepted by the government but two demands were refused to accept:-
• A demand for a public inquiry into police excess.
• Communication of death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.

On the other hand, congress on its part agreed to-

1. participate in the second Round Table conference.
2. discontinue the civil Disobedience Movement. This 'Gandhi Irwin pact' also known as 'Delhi pact' was endorsed by the congress in its Karachi session on 29th March, 1931. It also reiterated the goal of 'Poorna Swaraj'

Answer : Mahatma Gandhi thought that Basic education aims at all over development of body. Soul and Brain. Literacy is not whole education in itself. Children should be given paining of handicrafts form the basics level so that they can be self - reliant is future. Basic education must develop individual creativity. It should fulfill national necessities and physical training. Cleanliness and self-reliance should be emphasized. Fill matriculation, education should be departed in vernacular languages and not in English. Main objectives must, also include achievement of the highest Goal. This should eradicate classism and unemployment. Children should prepare handicraft products in school and all these products must be purchased by the government. He also believed in religious teaching which would make the soul sensitive in humanism.

Answer : The partition of India is 1947 was the result of the policy of decide and Rule of the British. The communal Representation given to Muslims by the Act 1909 favear effective blow to the unity of Hindu & Muslims at laws in political sense. Communal Representation award wasanother step in this direction. The activities of the Muslim league proved harmful in unity and draw a deviling line between the Indians as two different communities i.e. Hindu and Muslims. British also supported views of the league. Not only league but some fundamentalist Hindu leaders and organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha also played a role in building a wall. When Jinnah failed to achieve through constitutional means, he resorted to' the direct Action lay on 16th August 1946. Communal riots took tool of thousands of lives. All these Sita atones admits failure of negotiation and persuasions; led to worsened situation of social life. Mistake of both congress & league, British policy; greed of power of leaders and influence of Mountbatten led to the partition of India in 1947.

Answer : During British Rule, Indian resources and production were sent to England though various modes. The return was Inadequate. Trade was exploitative and administration did not concern for India's development, All these resulted in the accumulation of wealth in England from India. This was called' Drain of wealth' by Dadabhai Naroji to expose.The nature of British rule. 'Drain of wealth' made India a poor country by reduction the capacity of Industrialization and capitalization. It did not allow India to develop all potentials. Adverse effects upon society and employment led to slow progress of scientific development.

Answer : Raja Rammohan Roy was an active social reformer and religious person. He did not only religious but also to reform it, he studied holy books of many religions thoroughly and conclude that unity of god with central theme of every religion with emphasize 'one God' principle. He never believed in 'dilatory' religious dogmas and blond faith. He supported all religions and founded Brahmo Samaj in 1828 to spread these thoughts. As a social reformer he apposed Sati system and due to his efforts, in 1929 Lord William Banttick passed allows to abolish sati system. He advocated girl. Education, widow remarriage and inheritance of women in parental properties. All these were well before awakening of Indian class and so he regarded as the foremost social and religious reformer.

Answer : (i) Chaitya:They are Budha temples. There is a big hall with many pillars, sometimes with encarved stones. Chaitya of Maurya period were made of wood.

(ii)Vijayanagura Art: Art of Dravid style with chief features of temples like' Girbha Griha' Gopuram' and newly introduced 'Amman' Kalyanmandap' prominent.

(iii) Yaksha Gana: It is a Karnatki drama form. This religious drama involves bodily movements as the main medium of expressions.

(iv) Khyal: In Hindustani Music 'Khayal' is very popular vocal style. It has four main style called- Gharanars

• Gwaliar Gharana
• Agra Gharana
• Kirana GharanaPatiyala Gharana

Answer : (i) Lalit kala Acadmy: It was established in 1954 to promote Indian Art in India and abroad through research, exhibition; programmes and publications.

(ii) Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: Established in 1867 is Poona by M.G. Randy. Atmarvam Pandurang and others to act as a mediator between the people and government.

(iii) Rowlattact: This act was passed in 1919 which vested the government with powers to imprison any Indian prosecution. It came to be known as ' Black act'

(iv) August Declaration, 1917:Montagu declared on 20 august, 1917 that the governmentwanted to increase participation of Indians in administration and develop self- government send progressive responsible government as an integral part of the British Empire.

Answer : (i) Surat: located on Gujarat coast, it was the place of first factory of Britishers in India and associated with congress split in 1907.

(ii) Vaikom: It is in Kerala associated with the socio religious movement of temple entry under the leadership of K.P. Keshadrmenan.

(iii) Mindapur: After the battle of plassey, to get Nawab ship. Mir Quasim gifted the Britishers with the Zamindariof Mindapur along with Burdwan and Chittagong districts of Bengal. In 1942 a communal Government was established here.

Answer : Gandhiji returned to India in January, 1915 from South Africa. He had done a successful movement in South Africa, ‘Satyagraha’. Britain was involved in the first world war when he came to India. He resorted to cooperation with the British Government with a hope that the government would give more rights and just administration to India. He even encouraged the Indian youth to join army. This co-operative attitude towards government get him the title of ‘Kaisare-i-Hind’ by British rule.

But the enforcement of the Rowlett Act in March, 1919 was a set back. People called it “Black Act”. They were discontented with this act instead of some constitutional concessions for their co-operation to Britain in the first world war. This changed Gandhi to non-cooperation with the British rule. Champaran satyagraha-1917, Ahmedabad Mill strike-1918 and Kheda Satyagraha-1918 had also given some feedback to his attitude to lean towards non-cooperation. Incidents after Rowlatt Act led to declaration of mass movement by Gandhi. Jallianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919 and then the report of Hunter commission also around the feeling of protest among people. Khilafat Movement was also launched at this time. Thus, by 1920, Gandhiji’s responsive cooperation was transformed into non-cooperation.

He even returned the title of Kaisare-i-Hind to the government.

Now Gandhi launched and encouraged protest of government, boycott, Swadeshi a mass movement of non-cooperation. All these awakened the masses under his leadership for the first time on such a wide scale. This resulted in active involvement of people in national movement.

Answer : The revolt of 1857 gave a shock to the British Government. It was inevitable to take some immediate measures to avoid occurrence of another revolt. Plus it, the British wanted to retain Indian control a there was no more supremacy of the British empire over the world in finance and manufactured goods trade. In such a situation, India was to play a role of a territory to be exploited.

After 1857 revolt, there were many changes in administration of India. The first and foremost step in this regard was taking away of the control of India from the East India Company by the British crown so that a strong control may be retained.

After the act of 1958, the crown was to rule. India, through the secretary of state who was made responsible to the British Parliament, making India a direct colony with a strong hold over its administration.

To avoid the possibility of another armed, some changes were made in army also. Proportion of European to Indian soldiers was balanced to counterpoise them. Communal, religious, regional and castism policies were also exercised to counterpoise the Indian soldiers among themselves and discriminatory recruitments were justified on the basis of these policies.

Indians were not recruited or promoted to a key strategic post or location in army or administration. Civil services were made more tough to enter by reducing the maximum age limit to 19 years in 1878 from 23 years of 1858.

Princely states were taken under control by giving them right to adopt a heir and abandoning the annexation policy. But later on, the queen adopted the title of Kaiseri-i-HInd and Lord Curzon made it clear that Princes were only agents of the British crown. Thus, all these policies were aimed to control Indian colony through more reactionary policies in such a way that possibilities of second revolt were negated.

Answer : Though Administrative necessity of partitioning Bengal might be a need of time, but the way in which Partition was effected clearly floats out the political motives of the British Government on the surface.

The growing unity of nationalists in Bengal had been a cause of political awareness in India and a hurdle to the British rule. RisingNationalism in Bengal had became an example for the rest of the India to follow and a threat against the British administration to curb. Most of the nationalist newspapers were published from Bengal giving a push to the national spirit.

All thesehave to be curbed in the soil to throw out possibilities of upsurge against the rule. British officers had admitted on some occassions, directly or indirectly that they wanted to split up that united province able to threat their rule in India.

Therefore, the partition was planned in such a way that it divided the linguistic unity in two provinces and reduced majority of religious group also to make them reduced power of unity in both the provinces. Even they prop communalist Muslims against the nationalism arousing the feelings difference among them.

Answer : Learning from the first lesson of the first Afghan war which cost the British Indian Government, more than one and a half crore rupees and about 20,000 men, the Governor General John Lawrance (1864 to 1969) adopted the Masterly Inactive Policy. This policy was certainly as a reaction to disaster of the first Indo-Afghan war of 1838-42. Due to interference in Afghanistan’s affairs, the government had to suffer a lot, and policy of non-interference was adopted then. This policy was made necessary due to the frontier problem and Afghan passion for independence. This was continued even when Dost Mohammed, Amir of Afghan died in 1863 and war of succession was going on in Afghan.

It was only when Sher Ali established himself on throne, Lawrence offered friendship. But with the arrival of Lytton as the Governor-General in 1876, a new policy of having scientific frontiers and exercising influence over Afghan was adopted and the policy of masterly inactivity was abandoned. This was due to realisation of importance of having scientific border.

Answer : After the second Round Table Conference the British Prime Minister, Ramsay McDonald announced the communal Award in August 1932 which is known as the McDonald Award.

This Award included depressed classes also in minorities along with the Muslims, Sikhs and Christians and entitled them to separate electors.

Because of the reaction of Gandhi and disagreement of the congress, the communal Award was modified. It was considered to be harmful to the unity of India. Depressed classes were to remain untouchable in perceptivity if the Award was accepted according to Gandhi. He demanded joint electorate for the depressed classes.

Gandhi went on indefinite fast on September 20, 1932. Gandhi and Ambedkar along with other leaders agreed to abandon separate electorates for the depressed classes and increase the number of reserved seats for them in provincial legislatures from 71 to 147 and in the central legislature to 18% of the total seats through Poona Pact in September 1932.

This Poona Pact was accepted as an amendment to the communal Award by the Government and accordingly, the Award was modified.

Answer : Tilak arose patriotic feelings among the masses through organisation of Ganapati and Shivaji festivals. He started two newspapers ‘Maratha’ in English and ‘Kesari’ in Marathi language to spread national spirit among the people. He gave the call for Swaraj first time and gave a slogan. “Swaraj (freedom) is our birth right”. Due to his efforts and influence, the 1906 session of congress, under the Presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji, adopted self-government, boycott and national education in their resolution. He started Home Rule movement in Maharashtra in 1916 and uridened basis of nationalist movement in India.

Answer : Liberals were those leaders who not only supported but also cooperated with the British Government. These leaders wanted congress to adopt liberal attitude but congress rejected, so at the time of non-cooperation movement in 1920, they left the congress and formed a new party. ‘Liberal Federation’ S.N. Bannerjee, Shrinivas Shastri, etc. were liberal leaders. They did not join main stream of the national movement. Even at the stage when the non-cooperation movement was spread all over the country, they did not boycott legislatures but accepted ministership and government posts.

Because of this attitude of liberals, Jawaharlal Nehru has been very critical of the “Liberals” in his Autobiography.

Answer : Even during the National Movement, some leaders and organisations bought for the cause of people of Indian states.

After the independence, the movements of states caught a fire. Due to suppressive and exploitative rule and governance, they demanded integration of states in India.

Junagarh and Hyderabad states were foremost among these people’s movements. People of these states expressly revolted against their rulers and threw them away. Indian Union was formed by the integration of such states, in many other states also, people’s movement were orgnaised for integration of states.

Answer : Tagore preached national spirit with the internationalism and spirituality. His poems develop concept of “Vasudhaiv Kutumbkam” and he accepted only boundary expression to a particular nation only. Even his concepts of nationalism were those common to the human being of the world, equally. According to him, the psychological and spiritual feelings of all humans are same and common without confining them within boundaries, either political or geographical. His internationalism is therefore, known as spiritual Humanism.

His narration of world humanity was true way for internationalism and humanism.