Question : Explain how climate change is leading to climate exiles. (200 words)
Answer : Disasters such as intense storms and heat waves and slow moving changes like draughts and sea level rises (SLR) are expected to exacerbate living conditions to such an extent that people could be forced to move from their spaces or homes and could become climate exiles. Many would be forced to move into neighbouring, more protective spaces in the same country and perhaps across national borders. According to the 2006 stern review climate change may displace 200 mn people by the middle of the century.
Impact on Island Nations: There are Islands in the world that are only a few meters above sea level and any change (rise) in mean sea level will adversely affect them. Even if the mean sea level rise by couple of meters these Islands would partly or completely submerge. The people worst affected by these changes will be the poorest and most vulnerable. It is no surprise then that Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) has called for global action to limit warming to 1.5°C, as opposed to the general focus on a 2°C limit. In a grim reminder of reality, however, the World Bank in its report "Turn Down the Heat" says that without action, we could be seeing warming by 4°C above pre-industrial levels.
Low-lying delta regions of the world such as those of the Irrawaddy and the Ganges-Brahmaputra are also vulnerable to the effects of SLR. More than a tenth of humanity resides in vulnerable regions of the world that are within 10 meters of today's sea level, also known as Low Elevation Coastal Zones (LECZ). Close to half of Bangladesh lies in the LECZ and these areas will be severely affected by rising seas.
Any Legal Remedy Available: In the case of climate exiles people can avail no remedy under the United Nations Refugee Convention, which offers protection only for those who have been forced to leave their country "owing to well-grounded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, membership in a particular groups or political opinion".
Question : Explain how tropical cyclones are formed? And also state why our eastern coast experiences more cyclones than western coast Explain. (200 words)
Answer : Tropical Cyclones are low pressure systems that form over warm tropical waters and have gale force winds (sustained winds of 63 km/h or greater and gusts in excess of 90 km/h) near the centre. Technically they are defined as a non-frontal low pressure system of synoptic scale developing over warm waters having organised convection and a maximum mean wind speed of 34 knots or greater extending more than half-way around near the centre and persisting for at least six hours.
The gale force winds can extend hundreds of kilometres from the cyclone centre. If the sustained winds around the centre reach 118 km/h (gusts in excess 165 km/h) then the system is called a severe tropical cyclone. These are referred to as hurricanes or typhoons in other countries.
The circular eye or centre of a tropical cyclone is an area characterised by light winds and often by clear skies. Eye diameters are typically 40 km but can range from under 10 km to over 100 km. The eye is surrounded by a dense ring of cloud about 16 km high known as the eye wall which marks the belt of strongest winds and heaviest rainfall.
Tropical cyclones derive their energy from the warm tropical oceans and do not form unless the sea-surface temperature is above 26.5°C, although once formed, they can persist over lower sea-surface temperatures. Tropical cyclones can persist for many days and may follow quite erratic paths. They usually dissipate over land or colder oceans.
Why East Coast Experiences More Cyclones: The Bay of Bengal is prone to cyclones because a lot of typhoons that originate in the south western Pacific Ocean get carried North West towards India. In addition to these, there are cyclones that develop in situ over the Bay of Bengal itself. The Bay of Bengal thus the eastern coast of India experiences more cyclones than the Arabian Sea because of two reasons:
Question : Oceans are the greatest reservoir of global heat but it has also reached its threshold limit. Explain the consequences of it for the marine-ocean ecology. (200 words)
Answer : Increasing temperature causes seawater to expand in volume and at the same time accelerates the melting rate of glaciers and continental ice caps. Both of these processes contribute to rising sea level. The expansion of polar waters due to reduced salinity further promotes sea level rise. Healthy reefs completely covered with rapidly growing coral colonies, a common sight in tropical waters only a few decades ago, are able to grow upwards faster than the rate of sea level rise. For example, many Jamaican reefs had grown up to 30 meters in thickness since sea level stabilized around 6000 years ago (a rate of about 5 millimeters per year), more than the current rise in sea level of around 2.8 millimeters per year. However the rate of sea level rise rate is accelerating and the degraded reefs that now predominate world wide have too little live coral cover (often only a few percent to a few tens of a percent), and are growing far too slowly for the reef framework to keep up with sea level rise. These compromised reefs will eventually be drowned, resulting in enhanced rates of coastal erosion.
Ocean warming and the contributions from fossil fuel use constitute real and pressing priorities requiring prompt attention. The current rise of shallow water, near-shore sea temperatures in virtually all coral reef habitats around the world gives reefs only a few years to a decade ors o before they lose their remaining living hard corals, if warming continues at the present rate, less if it accelerates. The fact that all major areas of coastal upwelling, responsible for the bulk of the Earth’s pelagic fisheries, are warming faster than the global average indicates that the growing thickness of the warm surface layer is making upwelling less effective at bringing cold nutrient-rich water to the surface, causing the collapse of pelagic food chains from the bottom up.
Question : Indian Forest Cover is precariously low for sustaining the ecological weight of the economy. In this context do you think that the heavy forested States must be given a royalty in-lieu of the ecological services they are providing to the other industrial plain-area States? (200 words)
Answer : The forest report 2014 reveals that the total forest & tree cover of India is 24% with Madhya Pradesh leading in terms of area while Arunachal Pradesh leading in terms of percentage.
The forest policy of India gives ample importance to the conservation, security and development of forest areas. Thus, a target of bringing 33% of the total land area under forest has been fixed. According to it, 20% of the plain areas and 60% of the mountainous region should be under forest cover. In the Tenth Five Year plans a target bringing 25% of total land area under forest by 2007 and 33% of the total land area by 2012 was fixed. But, the efforts in this direct are still not sufficient.
Thus, in order to increase the forest area and the green cover, the government should incentivize the states which are contributing in excess of their total area under forestry.
It will be a laudable step and contribute in the following ways:-
Question : Water conservation is the most important component of sustainable development. In the light of this statement state the problem of ground water depletion in India and suggest suitable measures to address this problem. (200 Words)
Answer : Water is fundamental to sustainable development and a basic component of national and regional ecosystems. Water is at the core of sustainable development. Water resources, and the range of services they provide, underpin poverty reduction, economic growth and environmental sustainability. From food and energy security to human and environmental health, water contributes to improvements in social well-being and inclusive growth, affecting the livelihoods of billions.
Ground water depletion Problem in India
Remedial Measures
Government Initiative
Question : Examine the role of pressure belts in the formation of climatic regions in the world. Also state under which pressure belt India falls. Diagrammatically represent your answer. (200 words)
Answer : The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system for classifying the world's climates. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. The Köppen system recognizes five major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter.
Factors Influencing the World Climatic Regions
So far in this online textbook we have discovered that the climate of a particular place is the function of a number of factors. These factors include:
Question : Examine the nature and extent of environmental degradation in the Himalayan flora and fauna. (200 words)
Answer : The Himalayas are our greatest heritage. They are storehouses of biodiversity and natural resources which have sustained life in the mountains as well as the plains for centuries. Some of the largest river-systems and basins in the world which have sources here provide our country with 60% of its water requirement. It's 9000 plus glaciers and high altitude lake store about 12000 km3 of fresh water. About 1,200,00 million m3 of water flow from its rivers every year which sustains the great Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains providing food for the rest of the country. The dense forests have been able to reduce carbon emissions by over 20%, a key factor in mitigating and controlling climate change. The Himalayan region contains states of diverse cultures and communities whose lives and livelihood are intricately woven with these mountains.
The Himalayan states and its people definitely need economic growth, but the planners and policy makers in New Delhi and the state capitals of the Himalayan states should take special care that development and economic growth takes into account the ecology and the fragility of the region. The current spate of rapid urbanisation and indiscriminate construction of roads and dams can lead to short term gains but may cause irreparable damage in future.
Solutions - We propose to relook our current model of development to an alternative model which will ensure the survival of the Himalayas and our future generations.
Why is this important?
Question : Critically analyse the initiatives taken by the governments for cleaning the polluted rivers in India and also discuss the impact river pollution causes on biodiversity. Also discuss the salient features of Clean Ganga mission? (200 Words)
Answer : The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.
Clean Ganga Mission (Namami Gange): "Namami Gange" Program integrates the efforts to clean and protect the Ganga River in a comprehensive manner.The Government is focusing on involving people living on the banks of the river to attain sustainable results. Drawing from the lessons learnt from previous implementation, the program also focuses on involving the States and grassroots level institutions such as Urban Local Bodies and Panchayati Raj Institutions in implementation. The program would be implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state counterpart organizations i.e., State Program Management Groups (SPMGs).
'Namami Gange' will focus on pollution abatement interventions namely Interception, diversion & treatment of wastewater flowing through the open drains through bio-remediation / appropriate in-situ treatment / use of innovative technologies / sewage treatment plants (STPs) / effluent treatment plant (ETPs); rehabilitation and augmentation of existing STPs and immediate short term measures for arresting pollution at exit points on river front to prevent inflow of sewage etc.
Question : Discuss the significance of Western Ghats and threats to its biodiversity. (200 Words)
Answer : Significance- Older than the great Himalayan mountain chain, the Western Ghats of India are a geomorphic feature of immense global importance. The Outstanding Universal Value of the Western Ghats is manifested in the region's unique and fascinating influence on large-scale biophysical and ecological processes over the entire Indian peninsula. The mountains of the Western Ghats and their characteristic Montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that mediate the warm tropical climate of the region, presenting one of the best examples of the tropical monsoon system on the planet. The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.
A significant characteristic of the Western Ghats is the exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism. This mountain chain is recognized as one of the world's eight 'hottest hotspots' of biological diversity along with Sri Lanka. The forests of the Western Ghats include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests in the world. At least 325 globally threatened (IUCN Red Data List) species occur in the Western Ghats.
Threat: The Western Ghats were once covered in dense forests. Today, a large part of the range has been logged or converted to agricultural land for tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm, or cleared for livestock grazing, reservoirs and roads. The growth of populations around protected areas and other forests has also led to habitat destruction, increased fragmentation, wildlife poaching and human-wildlife conflict. Drivers of threat to biodiversity of Western Ghats are:
Question : Do you think that valuation of ecosystem services would be essential for conservation related issues? (200 words)
Answer : The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment defined Ecosystem Services as “the benefits people derive from ecosystems”. Besides provisioning services or goods like food, wood and other raw materials, plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms provide essential regulating services such as pollination of crops, prevention of soil erosion and water purification, and a vast array of cultural services, like recreation and a sense of place..
In spite of the ecological, cultural and economic importance of these services, ecosystems and the biodiversity that underpins them are still being degraded and lost at an unprecedented scale. One major reason for this is that the value (importance) of ecosystems to human welfare is still underestimated and not fully recognized in every day planning and decision-making, in other words, the benefits of their services are not, or only partly, captured in conventional market economics.
Furthermore, the costs of externalities of economic development (e.g. pollution, deforestation) are usually not accounted for, while inappropriate tax and subsidy (incentive) systems encourage the over-exploitation and unsustainable use of natural resources and other ecosystem services at the expense of the poor and future generations.
Ecosystem Services Important for Sustainable Development: The human population is expected to reach 9 billion people by 2050, and with that increase will come a greater demand for many natural resources. Look at freshwater needs, for example. Research has estimated per person per day dietary needs of 2,000–5,000 liters of water, and this does not include water needed for cleaning and other activities. Hand in hand with this growing demand for resources is the conversion of native ecosystems to meet growing needs; this is where a tradeoff assessment in terms of ecosystem services might be useful.
Agricultural and pasture lands represent about 40 percent of global land surface. If people continue to depend on agricultural products as they have in the past, then by 2050, scholars estimate that 109 hectares of natural ecosystems will be converted to agriculture. This conversion would include a 2.4–2.7-fold increase in nitrogen- and phosphorus-driven eutrophication of numerous waters with similar increases in pesticide use. Agriculture already accounts for 70 percent of water withdrawals from lakes, rivers, and aquifers.
This dependence and use pattern we have with our land is no different in the oceans. One clear example is oysters. Oysters have been consumed for sustenance for millennia. Reports from the 1800s in England indicate that in one year, 700 million European flat oysters were consumed, a process that employed about 120,000 people. In the Chesapeake Bay on the Eastern Shore of the United States, oyster reefs used to extend for miles. By the 1940s, these reefs had largely disappeared. This is, sadly, true of many ocean creatures and it underscores our dependence on nature and how a growing demand can affect nature's ability to support itself and us.
Question : Do you consider that the protected areas network would be successful without human rights being protected? (200 words)
Answer : The debate on rights-based approaches (RBA) to conservation that has emerged recently is occurring at a time when conservation thinking is being profoundly challenged. For over 100 years the conservation movement has followed the path set out in the 1872 Yellowstone Act. Its core business has been to ‘set apart wilderness as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefits and enjoyments of the people’–albeit on many occasions a limited, rather elite, subset of the people.
While there are those who feel that the RBA debate takes conservation too far away from its most important reason it is, for better or worse, too late to put this particular genie back in the bottle. The need for conservation to recognise the rights of those people who are most directly impacted by global conservation initiatives makes rights-based thinking not only a question of ethics and social justice but also a practical imperative for saving species and ecosystems.
To be clear, a rights-based approach is not about fulfilling a utopian dream of people and nature living in perfect harmony. When individuals and communities have rights over a particular area recognised and enforced, they may indeed act to safeguard some of its conservation values. But they will only do so if the right incentives are in place and whatever happens, there is no guarantee that people will exercise their rights in ways that preserve the ‘non-instrumental’ values, such as species diversity, that conservationists are particularly concerned about.
Local communities are certainly becoming more effective in asserting their rights to negotiate and implement decisions about how conservation and development needs are balanced across their landscapes and conservationists need to be able to respond to this. Indeed, there is a pressing need to translate the surfeit of current theory about rights-based approaches into the practical realities of resource management on the ground, particularly in countries with weak institutions and limited capacity to enforce agreements. For this to happen, lawyers, social scientists and natural resource managers need to start figuring out how they can collectively support and work with emerging grassroots social movements in many parts of the world, since it is these movements which will be driving the forest rights agenda in their own contexts.
Question : Write short notes on following (not more than 50 words)
Deep ecology’s core principle is the belief that the living environment as a whole should be respected and regarded as having certain inalienable legal rights to live and flourish, independent of its utilitarian instrumental benefits for human use. It describes itself as “deep” because it regards itself as looking more deeply into the actual reality of humanity’s relationship with the natural world arriving at philosophically more profound conclusions than that of the prevailing view of ecology as a branch of biology. The movement does not subscribe to anthropocentric environmentalism (which is concerned with conservation of the environment only for exploitation by and for human purposes) since deep ecology is grounded in a quite different set of philosophical assumptions. Deep ecology takes a more holistic view of the world human beings live in and seeks to apply to life the understanding that the separate parts of the ecosystem (including humans) function as a whole. This philosophy provides a foundation for the environmental, ecology and green movements and has fostered a new system of environmental ethics advocating wilderness preservation, human population control and simple living.
Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.
Question : What do you understand by the term "green transport"? Also discuss its need in India transportation sector. (250 Words)
Answer : Green Transport: Transportation, being a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, is the prime target for reducing air pollution and obtaining sustainable environment. This leads to Green Transportation, which means any kind of transportation practice or vehicle that is eco-friendly and does not have any negative impact on the environment. Green transportation involves effective and efficient resource utilization, changes in transportation structure and making healthier travel choices. This demands enhanced public awareness and participation, control of private vehicles and development of vehicles powered by renewable energy sources like solar, wind, electricity, biofuels etc.
Need for green transport in India
Question : The government's pro-developmental inclination often conflicts with the biodiversity and environment. Comment (250 Words)
Answer : India's remarkable growth record, however, has been clouded by a degrading environment and growing scarcity of natural resources. Mirroring the size and diversity of its economy, environmental risks are wide ranging and are driven by both prosperity and poverty.
In a recent survey of 178 countries whose environments were surveyed, India ranked 155th overall and almost last in air pollution exposure. The survey also concluded that India's environmental quality is far below all BRIC countries [China (118), Brazil (77), Russia (73), and South Africa (72)].
The environment /climate change crisis and development needs of the India's poor require us to acknowledge the necessity and urgency for both continued growth at the current pace, and rapid greening of this growth strategy. The threat of human-induced climate change poses a serious question to humanity:
Serious environmental problems such as ecosystem disturbance, climate change, water and air pollution, and rising sea levels can be seen as the unintended consequences of the development process.
Despite the bold warning from the recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report of the catastrophic impacts of rising temperature on the global climate, Government is all set to enact changes to weaken the existing environment and land acquisition laws of India, in order to promote industrialization and ensure high economic growth, allege activists and environmental expert.
Govt. has "delinked forest clearance from clearance by the National Board of Wild Life and halved NBWL clearance requirements from 10 km to 5km around forest reserves, besides emasculating the Board by replacing eminent experts and concerned NGOs with rubber stamps. He has also relaxed procedures for the application of the Forest Conservation Act (FCA) in precisely those areas where FCA is most required: Naxal-affected areas; linear projects in forest areas; and in eco-sensitive areas along the international border",
Some major governmental projects cause conflicts with environment and biodiversity:-
Though many committee (Gadgil, TSR Subrmanian, etc.) formed by govt. on environment conservation related issue recommended in favour of environmental protection, but still govt. is avoiding their recommendation to implement in blind pursuit of economic growth and development.
By maximizing the synergies between economic development and environmental protection, the concept of green growth emphasizes that strategic environmental policies can not only foster environmental sustainability at a low cost, but also have the potential to sustain long-term economic growth. Alternatively strategic climate/ environment policies should not be framed as a choice between the environment and economic development, but rather as a choice between effective measures to achieve balance between the two dimensions.
Question : Common but Differentiated Responsibility is becoming no one's responsibility. Comment (250 Words)
Answer : The principle of 'common but differentiated responsibility' evolved from the notion of the 'common heritage of mankind' and is a manifestation of general principles of equity in international law. The Rio Declaration states: "In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command."
The principle of common but differentiated responsibility includes two fundamental elements. Common responsibility describes the shared obligations of two or more States towards the protection of a particular environmental resource. The concept of common responsibility evolved from an extensive series of international laws governing resources labelled as 'common heritage of mankind' or of 'common concern' (like biodiversity).
Differentiated responsibility of States for the protection of the environment is widely accepted in treaty and other State practices. It translates into differentiated environmental standards set on the basis of a range of factors, including special needs and circumstances, future economic development of countries, and historic contributions to the creation of an environmental problem.
Twenty years later, this principle has become a focal point of current negotiations on climate change and the post-2015 agenda. The developing countries that make up the Group of 77 want to preserve the principle unchanged. However, the US, EU and other industrialized countries want to do away with it in its present form. They argue that global power structures have changed and the fair burden sharing must include contributions to climate protection from emerging economies like China, India and Brazil.
If consensus cannot be found, there will be neither a new global climate treaty nor a global development agenda worthy of the name in 2015. But how is discarding CBDR principle going to help climate negotiations? For starters, it would do nothing to change the evident socio-economic disparities between countries. The CBDR principle is based on internationally recognized principles of law which include the solidarity principle, the polluter pays principle, the ability to pay principle and, implicitly, the principle of equal opportunity and this will remain in place even if the principle itself is discarded.
New scientific reports show that the destructive effects of climate change have already begun to sweep the planet, with the global economy firmly on track to produce a level of emissions that would lock in a future of rising sea levels, intense droughts and food shortages, more destructive storms and floods, and other catastrophic effects.
As we continue to head towards deteriorating climatic conditions, it seems Common but Differentiated Responsibility is becoming no one's responsibility at all.
Question : Explain the structure and mechanism of global climate change financing. (250 Words)
Answer : Climate finance refers to financing channeled by national, regional and international entities for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects and programs across the world.
The Green Climate Fund is the only stand-alone multilateral financing entity whose sole mandate is to serve the Convention and that aims to deliver equal amounts of funding to mitigation and adaptation.
Question : Phytoplankton, the 'forests of ocean' absorb as much carbon dioxide as tropical rainforests and the way they respond to a warming climate is crucial in climate change studies. Elaborate.
Answer : A new study from the University of Exeter, published in the journal Ecology Letters, found that phytoplankton -- microscopic water-borne plants -- can rapidly evolve tolerance to elevated water temperatures. Globally, phytoplankton absorb as much carbon dioxide as tropical rainforests and so understanding the way they respond to a warming climate is crucial.
Phytoplankton subjected to warmed water initially failed to thrive but it took only 45 days, or 100 generations, for them to evolve tolerance to temperatures expected by the end of the century. With their newfound tolerance came an increase in the efficiency in which they were able to convert carbon dioxide into new biomass.
The results show that evolutionary responses in phytoplankton to warming can be rapid and might offset some of the predicted declines in the ability of aquatic ecosystems to absorb carbon dioxide as the planet warms.
These findings suggest that evolution could play a key role in shaping how aquatic ecosystems respond to climate change. The phytoplankton in the study adapted to warmer water in the lab and evolved the ability to capture more atmospheric carbon dioxide.
This experimental work provides the empirical basis for incorporating evolution into the models used to forecast future ocean productivity.
The underlying mechanism for the ability to tolerate warmer temperatures was an increase in the efficiency in which the alga was able to convert carbon dioxide into new biomass by reducing rates of respiration (production of carbon dioxide). It is this shift in the relative rates of respiration and photosynthesis that enabled the phytoplankton to cope with warmer temperatures.
While these experiments focused on a single species and strain of phytoplankton, the researchers believe that the rapid evolution of carbon-use efficiency will apply to other species of phytoplankton and substantially improve models describing ecological and biogeochemical effects of climate change.
Question : Analyse the role of India's space technology in disaster management in India. (250 Words)
Answer : India is one of the world's most disaster prone countries as is evident from the natural disasters occurring every year such as Gujarat earthquake, cloud burst in Uttarakhand, or the recent flood in Chennai (Tamil Nadu). These disasters adversely affect the national progress and human lives causing damage, death and loss of valuable goods.
A disaster management process is broadly divided into three parts i.e.:
Space technology is playing an important role for minimizing the adverse effect of natural disasters. Satellite imagery, giving real time information over a large area and space based technologies like telecommunications, global navigation satellite systems, geographic information systems and web technology can be used for prevention, preparedness, relief, reconstruction, warning and monitoring the various phases of disaster management.
Department of space is providing major support to the disaster management programme of the government of India. Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing series (IRS) of satellites provides information related to warning dissemination, monitoring and damage assessment, tracking cyclones and measurement of wind vectors, communication support etc. The capability of Geographic Positioning System (GPS) of USA and our indigenous IRNSS-series, to precisely determine the position of a location is being used to measure ground movements associated with plate tectonics. Other satellites that are serving for the cause of disaster management are Resourcesat, Cartosat, RISAT, etc.
Space technology des play an important role as they can be used to identify the affected areas, estimating the extent of damage and chalk out the rescue strategy.
Question : Discuss the mandate, and structure of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and also discuss its role in disaster management in India.
Answer : Mandate: It is unit created by the government for purpose of specialized response to natural and man-made disasters The NDRF works under the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) which lays down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management.
Structure: National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a force of 12 battalions, organised on paramilitary lines, and manned by persons on deputation from the paramilitary forces of India: three BSF, three CRPF, two CISF, two ITBP and two Sashastra Seema Bal. The total strength of each battalion is approximately 1,149. Each battalion is capable of providing 18 self-contained specialist search and rescue teams of 45 personnel each including engineers, technicians, electricians, dog squads and medical/paramedics.
NDRF in addition to being able to respond to natural disasters has four battalions capable of responding to radiological, nuclear, biological and chemical disasters.
Role in Disaster Management: These forces immediately respond with their exemplary courage to any disaster in the country as well as participate in international rescue operations as well such as the Nepal Earthquake early this year. Recent example of its rescue operations is Chennai floods, Tamil Nadu.
Question : As large part of Haryana & South-West Uttar Pradesh are under threat of desertification. What are the causes and describe combating methodology deployed by the government? (200 words)
Answer : Desertification is the persistent degradation of dry land ecosystems by variations in climate and human activities. Home to a third of the human population in 2000, drylands occupy nearly half of Earth's land area. Across the world, desertification affects the livelihoods of millions of people who rely on the benefits that dry land ecosystems can provide.
In drylands, water scarcity limits the production of crops, forage, wood, and other services ecosystems provide to humans. Dry lands are therefore highly vulnerable to increases in human pressures and climatic variability, especially sub-Saharan and Central Asian dry lands.
Some 10 to 20% of dry lands are already degraded, and ongoing desertification threatens the world's poorest populations and the prospects of poverty reduction. Therefore, desertification is one of the greatest environmental challenges today and a major barrier to meeting basic human needs in drylands.
Major Causes of Desertification
"Desertification is caused by a combination of factors that change over time and vary by location. These include indirect factors such as population pressure, socioeconomic and policy factors, and international trade as well as direct factors such as land use patterns and practices and climate-related processes."
According to a report, 68 per cent of the country is prone to drought, and this will be further heightened because of the impact of climate change, particularly in dry lands.
"Desertification and loss of biological potential will restrict the transformation of dry lands into productive ecosystem. Climate change will further challenge the livelihood of those living in these sensitive ecosystems and may result in higher levels of resource scarcity," the report warns.
Citing different government sources, the report states that 146.82 Mha of the country's total area is suffering from different kinds of land degradation, including water erosion (93.68 Mha), wind erosion (9.48 Mha), waterlogging (14.30 Mha), salinity or alkalinity (5.94 Mha), soil acidity (16.04 Mha) and other complex reasons (7.38 Mha).
The degradation was the result of loss of vegetation due to deforestation, cutting beyond permissible limits, unsustainable fuel wood and fodder extraction, shifting cultivation, encroachment on forest lands, forest fires and overgrazing, the report - jointly prepared by the environment ministry and the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education- said.
Other factors leading to large scale degradation comprise extension of cultivation to lands of low potential or high natural hazards, non-adoption of adequate soil conservation measures, improper crop rotation.
These factors lead to decreased land productivity and a downward spiral of degradation and poverty. Where conditions permit, dryland populations can avoid degradation by improving their agricultural and grazing practices in a sustainable way to counter the problems effectively, it is important - but difficult - to distinguish between effects resulting from natural conditions and those caused by management decisions as well as economic and policy factors.
Effects of Desertification
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh is Suffering from various Problem. In drylands, more people depend on ecosystem services for their basic needs than in any other ecosystem. Indeed, many of their resources, such as crops, livestock, fuel wood, and construction materials, depend on the growth of plants, which in turn depends on water availability and climate conditions.
Fluctuations in the services supplied by ecosystems are normal, especially in drylands, where water supply is irregular and scarce. However, when a dry land ecosystem is no longer capable to recover from previous pressures, a downward spiral of desertification may follow, though it is not inevitable.
Desertification affects a wide range of services provided by ecosystems to humans: products such as food and water, natural processes such as climate regulation, but also non-material services such as recreation, and supporting services such as soil conservation. Changes can be quantified and methods are available to prevent, reduce, or reverse them.
When faced with desertification, people often respond by making use of land that is even less productive, transforming pieces of rangeland into cultivated land, or moving towards cities or even to other countries. This can lead to unsustainable agricultural practices, further land degradation, exacerbated urban sprawl, and socio-political problems.
Government Initiative to Combat Desertification:
Question : "Mangrove Forests has been one of the potent indicators of climate change and its affects". Considering its importance, mention its functions and various threats in their survival? (200 words)
Answer : Mangroves are among the most productive and complex ecosystems on the planet, growing under environmental conditions, generally found where oceans, freshwater, and land realms meet. Mangrove forests are particularly found in tropical and subtropical regions within 30 degree of the equator. These tidal areas, such as estuaries and marine shorelines, are frequently inundated with salt water. Mangroves are the buffers between the coastline and seas. The protective effects of mangroves came to light during the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004.
Some of the important functions of mangroves are:
Mangroves are very important for the environment, its richest in terms of ecology and support biodiversity, below are some of its functions and importance
Environment Related importance
Economic Importance
Environmental/Ecological Importance
Tourism: Given the diversity of life inhabiting mangrove systems major cause for tourist attractions
Mangroves under Threat: Globally, half of all mangrove forests have been lost. Conversion into shrimp farms alone causes 25% of the total destruction. Mangroves are rapidly declining, mostly in Southeast Asia and Latin America due to wood extraction, climate change and industrial development and unsustainable tourism.
However, mangrove forests all over the world are facing several threats. Some of these are:
Anthropogenic activities are increasingly threatening the mangroves. Studies have shown that the mangroves of the Sunderbans are losing their capacity to absorb carbon dioxide. This can have a major impact on climate change and global warming all over the world. Mangroves play an extremely important role in the ecology and there is an urgent need to spread awareness about their functions and encourage their conservation.
Question : Discuss the causes and consequences of environmental degradation of Himalayan region in India and highlight the related conservation measures. (200 words)
Answer : The mightiest young fold mountain Himalayas is suffering from environmental recession, caused by natural and anthropogenic reasons. physical, human, socio economic & political processes are frequently linked together into a gigantic cause & effect drama which claim to be pushing Himalayas to the brink of environmental & socio-economic collapse.
Causes are:
Unprecedented Population Growth
Poverty
Flawed Agricultural Practices
This leads to:
Excessive Development of Mountain Roads
Excessive Tourism
Political Processes
These consequences again accelerate the flawed agricultural practices creating a "Vicious cycle"
Conservation Measures
Question : What were the achievements of COP-11 held in Hyderabad? (100 words)
Answer : COP 11 addressed issues such as capacity building, technology development and transfer, the ad verse effects of climate change on developing and least developed countries, and several financial and budget-related issues, including guidelines to the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which serves as the Convention’s financial mechanism. The achievements are:
Question : What is biodiversity? How have human activities affected biodiversity in the recent past? Explain with suitable examples/case studies. Also briefly discuss the role of National Biodiversity Authority in biodiversity conservation. (200 words)
Answer : "Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
Human activities affect biodiversity:
Role of National Biodiversity authority: The National Biodiversity Authority is mandated to regulate use of India’s biological resources; facilitates/ enable conservation action and provides advice to Central and State Governments on issues of conservation, sustainable use and access and benefit sharing.
Question : What are ecological adaptations? Discuss the various ways in which the human beings have been able to adopt themselves in different environmental conditions. (200 words)
Answer : Organisms are affected by their environment in many ways. An organism needs food, water, air, shelter, suitable temperature and protection from predators in order to survive. The non-living environment includes such things as temperature, light, humidity, air, water and soil which are all important factors for the survival of any organism. The survival of an organism also depends on the characteristics of the organism itself. Each organism has characteristics, both behavioural and physical, which enable it to survive in its own particular habitat. These characteristics are called adaptations.
The human body readily responds to changing environmental stresses in a variety of biological and cultural ways.We can acclimatize to a wide range of temperature and humidity.When traveling to high altitudes, our bodies adjust so that our cells still receive sufficient oxygen.We also are constantly responding in physiological ways to internal and external stresses such as bacterial and viral infections, air and water pollution, dietary imbalance, and overcrowding.
This ability to rapidly adapt to varying environmental conditions has made it possible for us to survive in most regions of the world.We live successfully in humid tropical forests, harsh deserts, arctic wastelands, and even densely populated cities with considerable amounts of pollution.Most other animal and plant species are restricted to one or relatively few environments by their more limited adaptability.
Humans normally respond to environmental stresses in four ways:
The first three are biological responses.The last three occur during our lifetime without further genetic change.
Humans show tremendous phenotypic diversity across geographically distributed populations, and much of this diversity undoubtedly results from genetic adaptations to different environmental pressures. The availability of genome-wide genetic variation data from densely sampled populations offers unprecedented opportunities for identifying the loci responsible for these adaptations and for elucidating the genetic architecture of human adaptive traits. Several ap6proaches have been used to detect signals of selection in human populations, and these approaches differ in the assumptions they make about the underlying mode of selection.
All other forms of adjustment to environmental stresses are usually reversible whether they occur in childhood or adulthood.These reversible changes are referred to as acclimatization.It is useful to consider the different forms of acclimatization in terms of the length of time over which they can occur.
Question : Write a critical note on environment pollution problem regarding urban India. (200 words)
Answer : The rapid growing population and economic development is leading us to a number of environmental issues in urban India because of the uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, expansion and massive intensification of agriculture, and the destruction of forests.
Environment issues in urban India include air pollution, water pollution, river pollution, solid water disposal, smog etc.
Air Pollution - The main sources of air pollution in India are automobiles, thermal power plants, industries, agriculture, quarrying and also the natural process. The rising number of motor vehicles and growing industrialization are contributing to urban air pollution. Major air pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), CFC, lead, SO2 and also suspended particulate matters (SPM). Nowadays, Smog is becoming major health issues in urban India. Air pollution in Urban India is responsible for many human health problems.
Water pollution - India has over the year progressively depleted its supply of water due to various factors, including increasing population, thoughtless urbanization, deforestation and the resultant soil erosion and flawed water management.
The major sources of water pollution in India are:
Water causes much severe water borne diseases. River pollution in India is also a big problem. Almost every river system in India is now polluted to a considerable extent. Industries generate a significant quantity of waste water which ultimately finds its way to river. Industrial discharge containing toxic and hazardous substances contribute to the severe kind of pollution in the aquatic system.
Solid Water Disposal - The solid wastes generation is increasing day by day not only in big cities in India but also in small towns and has become a threat to the environment. The composition and quantity of waste change with increase in per capita income. The main change in solid waste material has been with the increased use of plastic and other synthetic materials in place of biodegradable organic materials. The solid wastes include domestic and municipal waste, industrial and agricultural waste, waste created by mining and also radioactive waste.
Solid waste when left untreated, they ferment slowly and produce biogas that contains 65-75 percent methane gas, which is greenhouse gas. Therefore, development of suitable technologies for utilization of wastes is essential to minimize adverse health and environmental consequences.
Smog - Smog is a term used to describe air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere. One of the primary components of smog is Ozone. While ozone in the stratosphere protects earth from harmful UV radiation, Ozone on the ground is hazardous to human health. Smog hampers visibility and harms the environment and causes respiratory problems and causes death relating to bronchial diseases. Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin D production leading to a rise in the cases of rickets.
In India, there is a need for sustainable growth, i.e. growth which is not harmful to environment. The eco-friendly development can solve the problem of environmental degradation.Question : What is the concept of Rural-Urban wind cell? Describe the effects of such in both regions. (200 words)
Answer : Urban-rural Wind Cell
Urban and rural environments differ substantially in their micro-climate. These climatic differences are primarily caused by the alteration of the Earth's surface by human construction and the release of artificially created energy into the environment.
Energy Characteristics of Urban Areas
In a city, concrete, asphalt, and glass replace natural vegetation, and vertical surfaces of buildings are added to the normally flat natural rural landscape. Urban surfaces generally have a lower albedo, greater heat conduction, and more heat storage than the surfaces they replaced. The geometry of city buildings causes the absorption of a greater quantity of available incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial infrared radiation.
Even in early morning and late afternoon the urban areas are intercepting and absorbing radiation on their vertical surfaces. In urban areas, large amounts of heat energy are added to the local energy balance through transportation, industrial activity, and the heating of buildings. In winter, the amount of heat generated from the burning of fossil fuels in New York City is 2.5 times greater than the heat absorbed from the sun.
Finally, in rural areas, evaporation and transpiration from various natural surfaces act to cool the land surface and local atmosphere. In urban locations, drainage systems have been created to quickly remove surface water. Thus, little water is available for cooling.
Observed Climate of Cities
Urban areas tend to be warmer than the surrounding countryside. These differences in temperature are best observed at night under stable conditions when atmospheric mixing is at a minimum. Climatologists call this phenomenon the urban heat island. The urban heat island is strongest at the city center where population densities are highest and industrial activity is at a maximum. The heat island effect has been described in many cities around the world, and temperature differences between city and country can be as high as 6 degrees Celsius.
Wind in urban areas is generally calmer than those in rural areas. This reduction in velocity is due the frictional effects of the city's vertical surfaces. However, some street and building configurations within a city can channel the wind and increase its velocity through a venturi effect. Climatologists have measured about up to 10% more rainfall in urban areas. This increase may be due to the combined effect of particulate air pollution and increased convectional uplift. Air pollution may enhance rainfall by increasing the number of condensation nuclei through the atmospheric addition of smoke and dust particles. The additional generation of heat within the city increases the number of convection currents over that surface. Convection is required to initiate the development of thunderstorms.
Question : If you are a District magistrate in Earthquake prone region, what proactive and preventive steps you will take so that minimal damage happens to life and property in case of Earthquake strike? (200 words)
Answer : Any strategy to deal with earthquakes must be multi-pronged. However, as there is no effective warning system for earthquakes, it makes preliminary precautions even more critical. There are many parts of the world like Japan where earthquakes occur very frequently, but there is no loss of life or damage to property, as the people have learnt to live with earthquakes. They have constructed earthquake safe buildings and practice the Do's and Don'ts regarding earthquakes.
Role of District Collector
Following are the few steps that the district administration may take to cushion the impact of this natural disaster and save some precious human and animal lives:
Added measures need to be taken regarding:
Question : Flood and drought are becoming identity of the eastern and western part of India. In the context of this, examine the various impact of interlinking of the rivers in the country. (200 words)
Answer : About 60% of cultivable area of India is rainfed or un-irrigated which is critical in terms of securities for drinking, domestic and industrial water supply, fodder, feed, food, farmers' distress and farm income. About 80% of horticulture based livelihoods and 100% of forest products are realised without formal irrigation. About 49.8 mha land (15.2% of geographical area) is flood prone and about 10-12 mha is actually flooded each year. During 1900-2012 or 112 years period, droughts and floods are among top most natural disasters of India affecting human population. Deficit rainfall even in the assured irrigated regions has far reaching implications in terms of surface water supplies, ground water over exploitation, excessive power consumption and overall production strategies. Simultaneous occurrence of flood in one and drought in another parts of the country are quite common.
The Indian sub-continent is predominantly characterized by a tropical monsoon climate and entire regime is distinguished mainly by the differences in rainfall both in quantity and distribution. The most important feature is the regional and temporal alteration of atmospheric flow patterns associated with monsoon. There are two monsoon systems operating in the region (a) the South-west or summer monsoon accounting for about 80% and (b) the North-east or the winter monsoon which accounts for roughly 20% of the rainfall. There is a large variability in the monsoon rainfall on both space and time scales. Consequently different Indian regions experience drought or flood in some parts of the country almost every year during the monsoon period between June-September.
Government Initiatives
Interlinking of Rivers:
The Government of India has decided to link the major rivers of the country. A decade ago formulated plan is now going to implement in various stages. Recently the Krishna and Godavari River has been linked to each other. And most probably in the year 2016 the Ken River will linked to Chambal River.
So we can hope that when this project will be completed then the rain deficit problem in the western and central India will reduced and in some extend the rain surplus area that continuously suffering from flood problem will overcome from that problem.Question : NDMA is playing an important role in the disaster management in India as well as neighbouring countries. Do you think this is a part of disaster diplomacy? Evaluate. (200 words)
Answer : Disaster diplomacy combines two fairly common words. The Oxford Dictionary's definition of "disaster" is "a sudden accident or natural catastrophe that causes great damage or loss of life." However, as stated above, it is no longer correct to understand disasters are natural since their affects are far from it. The second word, "diplomacy," has a wide possibility of definitions. On a basic level it is contrasted with war as the peaceful side of politics, where negotiation is the avenue of choice for change. When the two words are brought together, it is in an attempt to answer the question of whether or not diplomacy as an international agent can actually make a difference in present and future conflicts/disasters that involve heterogeneous actors.
Disaster diplomacy investigates how and why disaster-related activities do and do not influence conflict and cooperation. The key phrase is 'disaster-related activities' covering:
The evidence from Disaster Diplomacy studies so far suggests that, while disaster-related activities do not create fresh diplomatic opportunities, they have the possibility of catalyzing action, although that possibility is not always fulfilled. The three outcomes from Disaster Diplomacy work so far are:
Disaster Diplomacy examines the role of disaster-related activities not just in international affairs and international relations, but also in all forms of conflicts with any form of party. That is, a wide definition of "diplomacy" is used. Disaster Diplomacy also embraces a wide definition of "disaster", not just rapid-onset phenomena such as earthquakes and industrial explosions, but also trends or variabilities which are more diffuse in space and time such as droughts, epidemics, and global changes. These latter events have been termed "chronic disasters", "creeping changes", and "disaster conditions" amongst other terms.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Ministry whose primary purpose is to coordinate response to natural or man-made disasters and for capacity-building in disaster resiliency and crisis response.[2] NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by the Government of India in December 2005.[3]The Prime Minister is the de facto chairperson of NDMA. The agency is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and best-practices and coordinating with the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to disaster management
Example
India and Nepal: Operation 'Maitri'
India's assistance to earthquake-affected Nepal is the largest relief and rescue mission undertaken by India outside its own borders. The NDRF, the Army, Indian Air Force (IAF) and other agencies were co-opted into the plan ab initio. Being an immediate neighbour, India enjoys a familiarity with the Nepalese system and people that is almost unique, including with Nepal's armed forces which are leading the rescue and relief efforts. IAF aircraft ferried heavy earth moving equipment, relief material, food, water, and medical teams and equipment. Stranded Indian citizens were brought home on return flights. Helicopters were pressed into service to deploy rescue teams, medical teams and relief material in the interior areas and evacuate casualties. These teams worked round-the-clock and in close co-ordination with the government of Nepal.
The Indian Army, with its close linkages with the Nepal Army, set up a Task Force led by a Major General at Kathmandu and a Brigadier at Barpak, the epicentre of the earthquake, for close coordination. The communication infrastructure was reinforced with detachments at Kathmandu, Pokhra, Barpak, Lalitpur and Gorkha. A 45-bed hospital and three field hospitals with 18 medical teams, along with six ambulances for casualty evacuation, were functional in different areas to provide medical support to the affected population. More than 2,600 victims have been treated so far by Indian medical teams; and out of these, 1,170 have been treated at Barpak. The orbits of six Indian satellites were adjusted to give coverage of the affected areas. It was heartening to see the coordination between various agencies from India as well as with the international rescue and relief teams.
So we can hope that the in near future Indo-Nepal relation will become more friendly and cooperative.
Question : Discuss the major achievements in last two decades on ozone layer protection with respect to the latest United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report.
Answer : The ozone layer acts like a shield in the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere), to protect life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV radiation can damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans and reduce crop yields. Some scientists believe that marine phytoplankton, which serve as the base of the ocean food chain, are already under stress from UV radiation. This stress could have profound effects on the food chain and on food productivity. Additionally, since most ozone-depleting substances are also potent greenhouse gases, replacing these substances with alternatives that are safer for the ozone layer can also reduce greenhouse gas emissions and slow climate change.
In 1974, scientists discovered that emissions of chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, were depleting ozone in the stratosphere. CFCs were a common aerosol propellant in spray cans and were also used as refrigerants, solvents, and foam-blowing agents. In the 1980s, scientists observed a thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica. In 1987, leaders from many countries came together to sign a landmark environmental treaty, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. These countries are committed to taking action to reduce the production and use of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances to protect the ozone layer.
According to the assessment, carried out by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the ozone layer has not grown thinner since 1998 over most of the world, and it appears to be recovering because of reduced emissions of ozone-depleting substances. Antarctic ozone is projected to return to pre- 1980 levels by 2060 to 2075, without the Montreal Protocol and associated agreements atmospheric levels of ozone depleting substances could have increased tenfold by 2050.
The Montreal Protocol, which was adopted that year with the aim of reducing ozone depleting substances, has been successful in reducing these emissions by more than 90 per cent. This decrease is about five times larger than the annual emissions reduction target for the first commitment period (2008-2012) of the Kyoto Protocol. According to global models, the Protocol will have prevented 2 million annual cases of skin cancer by 2030, averted damage to human eyes and immune systems, and protected wildlife and agriculture.
However, the report cautions that the rapid increase in certain substitutes, which are themselves also potent greenhouse gases, has the potential to undermine these gains.
Question : What do you mean by Heat-budget of the earth and its atmosphere? How global warming phenomena have affected Heat-budget of present day?
Answer : The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation. Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth. The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation. Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of condensation). 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space. Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units which balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth. This explains why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes place.
Disturbances of Earth's radiative equilibrium, such as the rise of heat trapping gases changes global temperatures in response, because of the greenhouse effect. The green-house gases allow the short wave radiation from the sun to reach the earth's surface but reflect backs some of the long wave radiation from the earth. An increase in the volume of gases would increase the amount of heat reflected back to the surface and absorbed by the atmosphere.
Global warming is a natural process and without it the Earth would be colder. But the combustion of fossil fuels increases the concentration of certain greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.These gases, include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, halocarbons and nitrous oxide, let in sunlight but tend to insulate the planet against the loss of heat, not unlike the glass of a greenhouse. Thus, a higher concentration means a warmer climate.
Of all the human-caused (anthropogenic) greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide has by far the greatest impact on the global heat budget (calculated as the amount of heat absorbed by the planet less the amount radiated back into space).
Question : “Relying solely on carbon taxes and subsidy may not be the most viable policy option for financing environmental protection”. Discuss along with the steps proposed by Economic survey for funding environmental protection.
Answer : Warning that a carbon tax of $10 per tonne of greenhouse gas emissions could cause a GDP loss of more than $600 billion, the Economic Survey says the way forward for domestic environment financing must come from a mix of market mechanisms, fiscal instruments and regulatory interventions.
Citing the results of preliminary modeling studies by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Survey argues that “relying solely on carbon taxes and subsidy may not be the most viable policy option.” It also discusses the establishment of a National Green Fund to finance environmental protection, but only mentions international sources to fill the coffers of the Fund.
The models projected four different carbon tax scenarios for a 20-year period between 2010-11 and 2030-31. At the most extreme end of the spectrum, an economy-wide tax on carbon emissions at the rate of $80 per tonne would lead to an undiscounted cumulative GDP loss of more than $4 trillion. But even a modest revenue-neutral $10 per tonne tax would lead to losses of $632 billion at 2005 prices, said the studies.
While it is difficult to assess the actual costs of fighting climate change – both through mitigation and adaptation–the Survey points to the preliminary estimate of Rs. 2.3 lakh crore needed to achieve the National Action Plan on Climate Change’s objectives.
Where is the money going to come from? Apart from government expenditure and subsidiaries– which were estimated at more than Rs. 5,000 crore for 2008-09–taxes are an obvious option. And the Survey acknowledges that “theoretically, environment-related taxes have an important role to play in funding green initiatives.” Rs. 50 per tonne ‘cess’ on coal is a form of carbon tax.
However, the Survey then goes on to cite the scary GDP losses projected by the modelling studies, warning that at the same time, any government must use these policy tools after serious consideration and analysis as they may have serious repercussions on other sectors of the economy.
While cap and trade mechanisms are also being used to promote energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy, the Survey makes it clear that domestic resources are simply not enough.
Thus, the proposed National Green Fund, which could be set up to finance both public and private sector activities aimed at protecting the environment, has no specified domestic sources of funding. Instead, the Survey only notes that the Fund could also be a vehicle for receiving international support.
Other Steps Proposed by Economic Survey for funding environmental protection
Question : Discuss the salient features of National Green Tribunal (NGT). Highlight how NGT can help in improving the environmental pollution.
Answer : Salient Features of National Green Tribunal
National Green Tribunal (NGT) acts wisely on environmental pollution to combat pollution and direct necessary steps need to be taken to control pollution. NGT has directed against NCR region to control air pollution and directed 14-point action agenda to clean up the air of Delhi. In a way NGT plays a very significant role in improving environmental pollution.
Question : Discuss the role of Wildlife Corridors in Biodiversity Conservation.
Answer : A wildlife corridor or a habitat corridor is an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities or structures. This allows an exchange of individuals between population which may help prevent the negative effects of inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity that are often seen occurring within isolated populations. Corridors may also help to re-establish the populations that have been reduced or illuminated due to random events (such as fires and disease). They may potentially moderate the effect of habitat fragmentation, wherein urbanization can payment split up the habitat areas.
The main purpose of implementing the wildlife corridors is to increase the biodiversity. When areas of land are broken up by human interference, population numbers become unstable and many of the animal and plant species become endangered. By reconnecting the fragments, the population fluctuations can decrease dramatically.
These wildlife corridors can contribute to three factors to stabilize a population:-
In India while corridors, prima facie, could enable. "Tiger gene flow and elephant migration" to the ultimate good of wildlife protection, these could further be extended to multiple species so as to prove a boon in the efforts of biodiversity conservation.
Corridors in India are majorly concentrates in southern part and North-eastern India, these needs to be further expanded and identified by both manual identification techniques and use of the modern technology to increase the benefits that accrue from these corridors of biodiversity conservation.
As habitats shrink and populations become more isolated due to increasing human pressure, ‘habitat islands' studded in a matrix of altered land use, serious questions on long term, survival of many by species arise, the certain of disapproval corridors will facilitate animal dispersal from isolated habitats and help counter biological processes that after lead to species extinction.
Question : Not with standing the broad climatic unity, the climate of India has many regional variations. Elaborate this statement giving suitable examples.
Answer : The monsoon regime emphasizes the unity of India with the rest of Southeast Asian region. This view of broad unity of the monsoon type of climate should not, however, lead one to ignore its regional variations which differentiate the weather and climate of different regions of India. For example, the climates of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south are so different from that of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north, and yet all of these have a monsoon type of climate.
The climate of India has many regional variations expressed in the pattern of winds, temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons and the degree of wetness or dryness. These regional diversities may be described as sub-types of monsoon climate.
While in the summer the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the western Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus 45°C in winter around Leh. Churu in Rajasthan may record a temperature of 50°C or more on a June day while the mercury hardly touches 19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the same day. On a December night, temperature in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may drop down to minus 45°C while Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai on the same night records 20°C or 22°C. These examples confirm that there are seasonal variations in temperature from place to place and from region to region in India.
While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the country. Similarly, variations are noticeable not only in the type of precipitation but also in its amount. While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Orissa are hit by strong rain-bearing storms almost every third or fifth day in July and August while the Coromandal coast, a thousand km to the south, goes generally dry during these months. Most parts of the country get rainfall during June-September, but on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, it rains in the beginning of the winter season. In spite of these differences and variations, the climate of India is monsoonal in rhythm and character.
Question : Highlight the recent findings of the IPCC 5th report on climate change and discuss its role in international climatic deals.
Answer : The fifth Assessment Report (AR5) is fifth in the series of such reports published by UNs IPCC. This new report shows how climate change is already having an impact on the natural environment and man. It warns that increasing magnitude of warning will increase the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts in the future. It assesses how climate change impacts and risks can be reduced and managed through adaptation and mitigation.
They have come up with some key headline findings which are as follows:
The impacts which we are already seeing are:
As far as the role of the 5th Assessment report in international climatic deals goes, it sets the following broad parameters for good risk management to avoid worst impacts:-
Question : Though renewable energy is clean resource, it has many environmental challenges. Elaborate.
Answer : All energy sources have some impact on our environment. Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas — do substantially more harm than renewable energy sources by most measures, including air and water pollution, damage to public health, wildlife and habitat loss, water use, land use, and global warming emissions. It is still important, however, to understand the environmental impacts associated with producing power from renewable sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and hydropower.
The exact type and intensity of environmental impacts varies depending on the specific technology used, the geographic location, and a number of other factors.
Wind Power: Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.
Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts associated with wind power generation. There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures. There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on people who live very close to wind turbines.
Solar Power: Like wind power, the sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable electricity. The environmental impacts associated with solar power can include land use and habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing, though the types of impacts vary greatly depending on the scale of the system and the technology used — photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP).
Geothermal Energy: The most widely developed type of geothermal power plant (known as hydrothermal plants) are located near geologic “hot spots” where hot molten rock is close to the earth’s crust and produces hot water.
In other regions enhanced geothermal systems (or hot dry rock geothermal), which involve drilling into the earth’s surface to reach deeper geothermal resources, can allow broader access to geothermal energy.
Geothermal plants also differ in terms of the technology they use to convert the resource to electricity (direct steam, flash, or binary) and the type of cooling technology they use (water-cooled and air-cooled). Environmental impacts differ depending on the conversion and cooling technology used.
Biomass for Electricity: Biomass power plants share some similarities with fossil fuel power plants: both involve the combustion of a feedstock to generate electricity. Thus, biomass plants raise similar, but not identical, concerns about air emissions and water use as fossil fuel plants. However, the feedstock of biomass plants can be sustainable produced, while fossil fuels are non-renewable.
Sources of biomass resources for producing electricity are diverse; including energy crops (like switch grass), agricultural waste, manure, forest products and waste, and urban waste. Both the type of feedstock and the manner in which it is developed and harvested significantly affect land use and life-cycle global warming emissions impacts of producing power from biomass.
Hydroelectric Power: Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants. Large-scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many parts of the world. This leads to widespread submergence of forest areas, change in drainage pattern and marine ecology.Question : Protecting human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants is one of the major ingredients of environmental conservation strategy. In this context discuss the features of Stockholm Convention.
Answer : The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife. POPs circulate globally and can cause damage wherever they travel.In implementing the Convention, Governments will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.
Over 150 countries signed the Convention and it entered into force, on 17 May 2004, 90 days after the ratification by the fiftieth country.
The Stockholm Convention focuses on eliminating or reducing releases of 12 POPs, the so-called "Dirty Dozen". It sets up a system for tackling additional chemicals identified as unacceptably hazardous. It recognizes that a special effort may sometimes be needed to phase out certain chemicals for certain uses and seeks to ensure that this effort is made. It also channels resources into cleaning up the existing stockpiles and dumps of POPs that litter the world's landscape. Ultimately, the Convention points the way to a future free of dangerous POPs and promises to reshape our economy's reliance on toxic chemicals.
The Stockholm Convention is perhaps best understood as having five essential aims:
The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is the designated interim financial mechanism for the Stockholm Convention.
Question : Describe the role played by zoos in conservation of biodiversity and different scientific techniques implemented by them to conserve wild animals.
Answer : Zoos can directly contribute in preventing the extinction of endangered species. It serves as valuable genetic reservoirs for species survival in nature. The strategies include:
Question : Explain Environmental Impact Assessment and discuss its role in the society.
Answer : Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) means a formalised procedure for examination, analysis and assessment of planned activities with a view to ensuring environmentally sound and sustainable development. There are nine major stages of EIA process—Screening, Preliminary assessment, Organisation, Scoring, Identification, Prediction, Evaluation, Mitigation and Documentation present in the Environment Impact Statement (EIS).
The EIA provides the following benefits:
EIA particularly aims to optimize a trade-off between developmental activities and socio ecological losses. It is a management tool linked closely to the project providing appropriate environmental information within the stipulated time.
Question : Globalisation has its impacts on biodiversity with cascading impacts on socio-ecological system. Comment
Answer : The globalisation has cascading effect on biodiversity throughout the world. These effects include reduced genetic diversity in agriculture (loss of crop varieties and livestock breeds), loss of wild species, spread of exotic species, pollution of air, water and soil, accelerated climatic change, exhaustion of resources, and social and spiritual disruption. Due to globalization trade between countries has increased tremendously. This has resulted in:
Question : Environment Impact Assessment is proactive rather than reactive? In the light of recent development give your critical comments.
Answer : Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can broadly be defined as a study of the effects of a proposed project, plan or program on the environment. EIA thus proves to be a tool which improves decision making and ensures that the project under construction is environmentally sound and within limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration capacities of the ecosystem. Environmental clearance of developmental projects is mandatory for the new project.
The important aspects of EIA are:
EIA provides a cost effective method to eliminate or minimize the adverse impact of development projects. It analyzes the impact due to development projects on environment periodically. Preparation of EIA report comprises the following steps:
Question : Highlight the main provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Bill, 2013?
Answer : The Bill seeks to provide the legal framework for the protection of various species of wild animals, management of their habitat and also for the regulation and control of trade in the products derived from them.
It confers power of entry, search, arrest and detention on any officer authorised by the management authority or any customs officer not below the rank of an Inspector or any officer of the coast guard not below the rank of an Assistant Commandant.
The proposed law deals with the serious offences of wildlife crime such as the offence related to any animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or the meat of such animal or animal article, trophy, or uncured trophy derived from such animal.
The proposed law seeks to punish the culprits with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than five years, but may extend to seven years and also with fine which shall not be less than Rs.1 lakh but may extend to Rs. 25 lakh. In the case of a second or subsequent offence of the same nature, the terms of imprisonment shall not be less than seven years and also with fine which shall not be less than Rs.5 lakh but may extend to Rs.50 lakh.
It also provides for protection of hunting rights of the Scheduled Tribes in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Question : Highlight the main issues included in IPCC 5th Assessment Report.
Answer : Warming of the atmosphere and ocean system is unequivocal. Many of the associated impacts such as sea level change (among other metrics) have occurred since 1950 at rates unprecedented in the historical record.
There is a clear human influence on the climate. It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of observed warming since 1950, with the level of confidence having increased since the fourth report.
It is likely (with medium confidence) that 1983—2013 was the warmest 30-year period for 1400 years. It is virtually certain the upper ocean warmed from 1971 to 2010.
This ocean-warming accounts with high confidence for 90% of the energy accumulation between 1971 and 2010.
Question : “The recognizable causes of the Jammu and Kashmir floods are Institutional failures”. Elaborate the statement and list the steps need to be taken to improve institutional system of disaster management.
Answer : The immediate cause of the Jammu and Kashmir floods was heavy rainfall but the recognizable causes of the Jammu and Kashmir floods are Institutional failures. According to data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD), Jammu and Kashmir received 55 per cent of rainfall above the normal level. Yet, none of the local, State or Central agencies saw the consequences of such heavy rainfall. There was sufficient time before the water from the rainfall reached Srinagar or other upstream areas of the Jhelum basin, and Jammu and other areas of the Chenab basin, but no agency provided any warning to these vulnerable areas. Thus the first institutional failure was of the IMD.
Second, the Central Water Commission, India’s premier technical body in water resources, which is supposed to provide forecasts of floods in all flood-prone areas, failed miserably in giving any information on river flow that would have warned the people in the downstream areas.
Third, the State Department of Irrigation and Flood Control which manages State water resources and the flood control system did not monitor and maintain embankments or provide any warnings when they were breached. This means even in the State capital, people had absolutely no idea of the impending disaster till the waters entered their houses and colonies. Further, this department’s website except the tender section has not been updated since 2011.
India is supposed to have elaborate disaster management institutions starting from the National Disaster Management Authority to the State Disaster Management Authority to the Divisional (in the case of Jammu and Kashmir) and District Disaster Management Authorities. However, except the National Disaster Response Force, which in any case is manned by paramilitary personnel, we see no impact made by these institutions in this disaster. The local administration and disaster management apparatus seemed to be generally absent during the floods.
Steps needed are:
Question : Community level participation in disaster management is very useful as they are the first responders to the disasters. Enumerate the steps need to be taken to improve community participation.
Answer : Most of disaster response can be characterized as command and control structure one that is top down and with logistic centre approach. Because of this, we observe, lack of community participation that results into failures in meeting the appropriate and vital humanitarian needs, unnecessary increase in requirement for external resources, and general dissatisfaction over performance despite the use of exceptional management measures.
Recognizing these limitations, the Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) approach promotes a bottom-up approach working in harmony with the top-down approach, to address the challenges and difficulties. To be effective, local communities must be supported into analyzing their hazardous conditions, their vulnerabilities and capacities as they see themselves.
In case of disasters, the people at the community level have more to lose because they are the ones directly hit by disasters, whether major or minor. They are the first ones to become vulnerable to the effects of such hazardous events. On the other hand, they have the most to gain if they can reduce the impact of disasters on their community. This concept gave rise to the idea of community-based disaster management where communities are put at the forefront. Through the CBDM, the people’s capacity to respond to emergencies is increased by providing them with more access and control over resources and basic social services. Using a community-based approach to managing disasters certainly has its advantages. Through CBDM, it is hoped that communities will be strengthened to enable them undertake any programmes of development including disaster preparedness and mitigation.
The CBDM approach provides opportunities for the local community to evaluate their own situation based on their own experiences initially. Under this approach, the local community not only becomes part of creating plans and decisions, but also becomes a major player in its implementation. Although the community is given greater roles in the decision-making and implementation processes, CBDM does not ignore the importance of scientific and objective risk assessment and planning. The CBDM approach acknowledges that as many stakeholders as needed should be involved in the process, with the end goal of achieving capacities and transferring of resources to the community, which level who would assume the biggest responsibility in over disaster reduction.
Steps need to be taken to improve community participation.
Question : Answer the following
Central share is released in two installments in the month of June and December and the State Level Committee headed by Chief Secretary is authorised for the financing of the relief expenditure.
Question : ‘Explain Disaster cycle’. With the help of an example, explain its importance and significance.
Answer : Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery. The Disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and immediately following a disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iteration of the cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and infrastructure.
The mitigation and preparedness phases occur as disaster management improvements are made in anticipation of a disaster event. Developmental considerations play a key role in contributing to the mitigation and preparation of a community to effectively confront a disaster. As a disaster occurs, disaster management actors, in particular humanitarian organizations become involved in the immediate response and long-term recovery phases. The four disaster management phases illustrated here does not always, or even generally, occurs in isolation or in this precise order. Often phases of the cycle overlap and the length of each phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster.
Mitigation -Minimizing the effects of disaster. Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public education.
Preparedness -Planning how to respond. Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.
Response -Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster. Examples: search and rescue; emergency relief.
Recovery - Returning the community to normal. Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care
Example: Government of Gujarat learnt some lessons from the 2001 earthquake that killed thousands of people.
Question : What are the hazards in the Himalayan Ecosystem? Explain the factors which led to the recent tragedy in Uttarakhand.
Answer : Hazards in Himalayan-Ecosystem
Factors Responsible for Uttarakhand tragedy
Question : Elucidate the role of NGOs in disaster management.
Answer : Given India’s multi-hazard risk and vulnerability to natural and man-made disasters, NGOs have been playing a significant role in providing humanitarian assistance to disaster-affected people in most of the severe disasters like the Latur earthquake in 1993, Orissa super cyclone in 1999, Bhuj earthquake in 2001, Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, Kashmir earthquake in 2005, Barmer floods in 2006, Kosi floods in 2008, cyclones Aila and Laila and the more recent cloud burst in Leh in August 2010, apart from participating in providing relief to disaster affected communities in various other localised disasters.
In the recent past, the role of NGOs in disaster management (DM) has started changing from providing post-disaster relief to strengthening pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation through capacity building, public awareness campaigns, mock exercises, workshops and conferences, etc. NGOs have also started to collaborate with corporate entities in Public- Private Partnership (PPP) projects and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives in the field of DM at State, District and Sub district levels. Till recently, the work of NGOs in the field of DM has been mostly sporadic, reactive, responsive, and driven by local level compulsions in the geographic areas where they are implementing development projects and very often they faced enormous challenges in coordinating with the government machinery and even among NGOs themselves.
In line with its mandate as envisaged in the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DM Act 2005), the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) felt the critical imperative to formulate National Disaster Management Guidelines on the Role of NGOs in DM to address these major gaps in the efficient and effective functioning of the DM stakeholders at the national, state, district and sub-district levels before, during and after disasters.
Question : Why 'Hazard Reduction Measures' are important in Disaster Management? Compare such measures taken during the recent cyclone in Odisha/Andhra and during Uttarakhand tragedy?
Answer : Different disasters require different mitigation measures. Flood mitigation requires measures like terracing the rivers, building embankments, raising level of habitations, etc. Earthquake mitigation requires construction of disaster resistant structures, and relocation of habitations. Cyclone mitigation requires construction of embankments, strengthening of buildings, construction of shelters etc.
Structural measures are mainly engineering solutions to prevent disasters, such as construction of dams, diversion channels, flood protection walls, cyclone shelters, etc. Construction of houses and other buildings should be strictly regulated through the mechanisms of building bye laws. These bye laws exist in major cities but are virtually nonexistent in the smaller cities and in rural areas. As a result unsafe buildings increase. Most of these buildings are non-engineered constructions where engineers and architects are not consulted.
In the recent cyclone, one could notice that machinery was in the state of readiness and everything went on expected lines, whereas in Uttarakhand tragedy, machinery was caught unaware. Administration was virtually non-existent.
Question : “Role and responsibility of National Executive Committee under Disaster Management Act, 2005.” Elucidate.
Answer : The National Disaster Management Act provides for a National Executive Committee to be presided by Union Home Secretary. This body has extensive powers and functions, including laying down guidelines and giving directions to the concerned ministries or departments of the Government.
Thus National Executive Committee (NEC) has been given the role of planning, coordination, monitoring and providing assistance during a disaster and also executive functions related to implementation of the emergency relief and disaster response.
NEC comprises of Secretaries of various ministries as members, besides representatives of Armed forces and Central Para Military Force (CPMF). Hence at the time of disasters, it can solicit cooperation from various ministries in a very effective way.
