Question : Elucidate the population density types in India.
(1994)
Answer : Three types of population density (at the district level) may be recognised in India:
High Density Type: There are 254 districts in the country which have a density of more than 400 pesons per sq. km. The high density areas are confined to the traditional agricultural belt of the Satluj, Ganga plain and the fertile coastal plains. The industrial and urban development in the post-independent period has superimposed extremely high densities in some districts of the traditional agricultural belts. In the interior Tamil Nadu, industrialisation and urbanisation are largely responsible for the maintenance of high densities of population.
Moderate Density Type: There are 172 districts which have population density between 200 and 400 persons per sq. km. These are the medium density districts. In the northern states, they are close to the high density districts. These areas are characterised by undulating topography, relatively less fertile soils and pancity of water for irrigation, urban industrial development has, however, helped the region in supporting moderate density. Another sizable area of medium density covers parts of Punjab and Haryana plains and northern parts of Rajasthan. These plains were the main beneficiaries of the green revolution of post-Independent period.
Low Density Type: Regions suffering from physical constraints such as mountainous, aridity and forest cover are sparsely populated and hence density is low to very low (below 200 persons per sq. km.). Such regions are not attractive to human habitation. There are 167 districts in this category. Major parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhatishgarh and western Orissa fall within the area of low density. Eastern Karnataka and central parts of Andhra Pradesh form another area of low density of population. Here the topography is hilly and dissected, the soils are shallow and poor in fertility the rainfall is low and availability of water is scarce.
Question : Ellucidate the current population policy of India and comment on its effectiveness.
(1993)
Answer : The New Population Policy was announced in 2000. It has special focus on health and education and envisages the target of stable population by 2045 A.D. The poolicy includes freezing of Lok Sabha seats at current level of 547 till 2026, compulsory registration of marriage and pregnancy, alongwith birth and death, cash incentives for compliance with requirements regarding antenatal check up, institutional delivery by a trained birth attendent, increasing the number of health workers, improve the availability of contraceptives and strengthening the health and family welfare services.
The medium term objectives of the policy include bringing down the total fertility rate to replacement level by 2010 through vigorous implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies like free school education to children upto the age group of 14, 20% reduction in the drop outs of children in schools at primary and secondary level bring down the child mortality rate to the level of 30 per 1000, universal immunization for communicable diseases, contain the spread of AIDS, and fix the minimum marriage age-limit of 18 years for girls.
Infact our population policy has been over emphasising the role of positive measures (such as contraception, sterilisation, abortion, etc.) to control population growth without paying adequate attention to the dynamic interaction between the demographic structure and the economic and social development and implications of such interaction for limiting the rate of population growth. For instance, the steadily dwindling sex ratio, the higher incidence of female mortality at specific ages, the education for girls at primary and secondary stages, the informal and formal instructions for young women in vocation, the opportunities for females to work, the population education etc. have attracted least attention of our planners and policy makers. The population policy of a nation can no longer confine itself to the reduction of birth rate alone, instead it must be all comprehensive strategy for overall improvement of social economic and demographic fabric of a nation. Question : "India presents an example of unity in diversity". Elucidate this statement in the context of India's physical and human aspects.
(1993)
Answer : Although with its well marked natural boundaries India is a geograpical entity but its vast size and large extent have fostered variegated characteristics in its physical as well as cultural landscape. It is because of this diversity that the term 'sub-continent' has often been used by some foreign scholars to foment regionalism and divisive forces within the country.
The physical landscape of India is of varied nature—rugged mountains with sharp, pinnacled peaks and steep sided valleys in the north, flat plateau with senile relief and wide valleys in the south and the level fertile plains with monotonous relief in between the two. Geologically these three represent three different structural units preserving traces of almost total geological history of the earth.
Broadly India is placed under tropical monsoon climate despite sharp climatic diversities ranging from megathermal to neruphilus, mesothermal, microthermal and ekistothermal types. Due to large size and varied relief features climatic elements like temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind and cloudiness exhibit wide variations, Leh in Kashmir records the lowest temperature of –45°C during winter season, while Ganganagar in Rajasthan is heated upto 50°C during the summer season. During same season there is wide of difference in temperature between coastal region and the interior, plains and the hills, and northern and the southern parts of the country. However, monsoonal climate imparts a broad regional unity reflected in agricultural economy and cultural ethos.
India has a highly variable climate with as many as six well defined seasons and each day of the year with distinct weather condition of its own. The heterogeneity of relief and variability of climate have their bearing on the drainage pattern, soil formation and vegetaion types. There is marked contrast between the Himalayan and the Peninsular rivers.
Soil types are also highly varied ranging from fertile riverine alluvium to infertile sandy desert soils or immatured this layered mountain soils or highly leached red soils or laterites. Vegetation types include evergreen tropical rain forests, mangrove forests, tropical deciduous forests and desert shrubs supporting numerous varieties of birds, insects, reptiles and animals.
Above diversity in physical landscape has led to varied response in human activities and consequent complexity in the cultural landscale. Since time immemorial India has been a meeting ground of people belonging to different racial, cultura, ethnic and religious stocks. Earliest to settle were proto-Australoids followed by Dravidians, Aryans, Shakas, Hunas, Yavanas, Kiratas, Turks, Afghans, Persians, Europeans etc. That is why Indian culture with basic phylosophy of tolerance, non-violence and universal brotherhood is a characteristic blending of various religious and cultural beliefs and a cosmopolitan outlook. The cultural landscape is dotted by numerous temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras, vihars, synagogues etc.
The people of India display high degree of diversity in their languages and dialects. According to 1961 census there were 187 languages of which 23 languages together account for 97% of the total population of the country.
Above description throws light on variegated and contrasting geographical personality. To many it looks like a weak and poor country which is susceptible to pressure, allurement misadventurism. They fail to visualise the inherent unity in diversity being created by the centuries old Indian culture whose roots are very deep. Infact from Leh to Kanyakumari and from Bhuj to Sadiya there is oneness and unity and India behaves as a solid rock to shatter the ambitions of invaders and adversaries. This unity is clearly perceptible during religious and cultural congregations. People from every nook and corner of the country take holy sojourn to visit four sacred places situated in the east (Puri), West (Dwarika), north (Badrinath), and south (Rameshwaram). Every twelve year there is vast congrogation of humanity howhere seen in the world in Kumbh fairs held at Prayag, Haridwar and Ujjain. These provide easy opportunity for people belonging to different sects and ideology to meet, exchange their views and understand each other. Even religious minorities have many things common with the Hindu majority. A report of the Anthropological Survey of India reveals that Muslims share a very high percentage (96.77%) of material and cultural traits relating to ecology, economy and occupation with the Hindus. They share social space, cultural traits, food habits, dress patterns, languages and dialects with their Hindu neighbours and have worked shoulder to shoulder in freedom strugge, facing foreign invasion and contributing in modern economic development so as to make India a strong, powerful and prosperous country. Infact geographical personality of India is unique and distinct from the rest of the world which has helped in national integration and deep sense of patriotism amongst its people. New development in transport and communication and political organisations have further strongthened this bondage and have paved way for new social and economic orders and prosperity.
Question : Explain the causes and consequences of migration.
(2007)
Answer : The fire inside stomach, the fire inside society, the fire in the heart to find better avenues of life are prime factors that force a main to migrate. There are both push and pull factors of migration. The push factors working at place of origin are mainly poverty, unemployment, epidemic, strife or disturbance. Whereas, the pull factors working at place of in-migration are mainly better standard of living, more employment opportunities, better or pleasant weather etc. The government policies are also a major determining factor of migration.
On the part of consequences, it has been witnessed both on the sources of out-migration and sources of in-migration. The places of out-migration suffer from high dependency ratio, more ageing population, favourable sex ratio as mostly men migrate to outer world etc. There are regions of very low productivity with very less employment opportunities. The per capita income is also very less as economy mainly depends on monthly remuneration sent by migrants. The place of in-migration suffers from higher population density, congestion, development of slums and a negative sex ratio. On the other hand, the per capita income and GDP growth rate of these places is always very high.
Demographic Change: International migration cause changes in the total number and distribution of population as also changes in the population resource relationship of the two areas involved. Sending areas become depleted of young adults, while receiving areas show high proportion of population in this age group. Migration results in a change in almost all the attributes of population such as numbers, density age sex-ratio, growth, mortality etc.
Economic Burden: Any assessment of economic consequence of migration must take into account the age, health, occupational skills and educational attainment of the immigrants, together with the economic needs of receiving country and its ability to absorb increased number. In the sending areas the loss of a large number of people by emigration can cause the ageing of the population, loss of most vigorous section of population and slowing down of resource development.
On the other hand, in small areas of extreme population pressure, the loss of population may be beneficial and may lead to rise in the living standard. In the destination country a large no. of immigrants may either be a burden or stimulous of development.
Social Structure: Migration results in the genesis of pluralistic societies by bringing different races, language groups and religious communities in contact and conflict. First generation immigrants lead to settle in urban environments and to establish
themselves in national and religious groups thus forming urban ‘ghettoes’ often overcrowded and with consequent social problems.
Pluralistic societies generate continuing source of friction. We have for e.g. the case of Afrikaners and the whites in South Africa and the French and British in Canada.
Conflicts: Religious differences are a source of conflict for instance between the Chinese and the Muslims in Indonesia & Malaysia or between Christians and Muslims in Philippines.
It is also difficult to keep a balance in the economic development of different social and cultural groups. The economic dominance of the Chinese immigrants in Malaysia is unwelcome to indigenous peoples which leads to constant tension. Similarly native Fijians oppose dominance of Indian immigrants in trade, agriculture and commerce.
The plurality of a society in terms of different racial, linguistic and religious groups is a great hindrance in establishing national emity. This leads to political instability in may countries, with each group clamouring for the right to national self-determination.
Cultural consequences: Taking a more optimistic view, despite the problems, migration is a vital process in the exchange of ideas between different cultures and diffusion of knowledge in the complex web of civilisation. Each migrant by nature seeks to create something of the original milieu in the midst of his new environment and thus enriches the civilisation.
There is also the gradual penetration of some word of a language into the vocabulary of the other.
Question : Evaluate the population policy of India and examine its relevance to nation’s population control.
(2004)
Answer : The achivements of India’s population policy in controlling its numbers have been far from satisfactory. First two Five Year Plans based on clinical approach and Third Five Year Plan based on extension approach passed on merely as experimentation periods. Fourth Plan policy became more positive by adopting cafeteria approach which considered family planning as an kingpin of the plan.
The new population policy announced in 2000 is welcome in some respects. It has special focus on health and education and envisages a long term objective of stable population by 2045 A.D. (instead of 2016 A.D. earlier). The policy includes freezing of Lok Sabha seats till 2026, compulsory registration of marriage and pregnancy, cash incentives for compliance regarding antenatal check up, improving the availability of contraceptives, incentive package to model small families, strengthening the health and family welfare services, etc.
In fact our population policy has been overemphasising the role of positive measure (such as contraception, sterlisation, abortion, etc.) to control population growth without paying adequate attention on the dynamic internaction between the demographic structure and the economic and social development and implications of such interaction for limiting the population growth.
The New Population Policy of 2000 has also been criticised on some grounds pushing the stability target from 2016 to 2045, i.e. by 35 years shows: lack of seriousness and will power on this front. Demographers are also critical of population commission being chaired by Prime Minister on the ground that he would never have sufficient time to devote to such crucial area.
So far our population policies have failed to generate a popular mass movement in creating awareness to control the nations growing numbers. People’s active participation and cooperation is a pre-requisite for any population policy to succeed.
Our long term population policy should include well conceived population education, massive awareness creating campaigns, restricting maternity and other benefits to small families, diversifying the economy and better heatlh, education and employment facilities particularly for females. In view of the grave situation posed by high population growth with such a large base, there is need to consider the element of compulsion in the policy, albeit with caution.
Instead of scattered measures, our population policy must be all comprehensive strategy for overall improvement of social economic and demographic fabric of the nation.
Question : Account for the present distributional pattern of population density in India.
(2002)
Answer : The population density of India shows great spatial variation in terms of its distribution pattern. The geographically conducive areas river basins, coastal low lands, flat plateau, and places where water is easily accessible show greater density. The socio cultural fector like religion, urbanisation, history of settlement, etc. have also given birth to islands of very high density within the Indian territory.
The geographically disadvantageous area, sandy, rocky and holly terrains, climatically hazardous areas show low density of population.
We can devide Indian states into three groups based on their density.
Region wise we can have such classification
High Density:
Low Density:
Question : Elucidate the sex and age structure of the population of India.
(2001)
Answer : Sex structure refers to ratio of population of males to that of females. In India, the sex ratio is calculated on the basis of number of females per thousand males. In India, the sex ratio is not in favour of females. According to the census of 2001, there are 933 females per thousand males in India. The disturbing factor in the sex ratio is its declining trend. Except slight gains in the census years of 1951, 1981 and 2001, the decrease is continous since 1901 onwards. In 1901, the sex ratio was 972 females per 1000 males, which fell down to 955 in 1921, 945 in 1941, 930 in 1971 and 927 in 1991. The main reasons for this negative sex ratio are illiteracy, traditinal society, sex based discrimination, poverty, etc. This is a typical characteristic of a developing country, where little care is taken to the health and hygience of female child. The rate of female infanticide at pre and post birth level is also a matter of great concern. That is why, there is strong demand for complete ban on the pre-birth sex determination. Though, sex ratio has improved slightly in 2001 but in the age group of 0-6 years, it has declined from 945 to 927 in the last decade. On an average, 937 female births took place for every 1000 male births. The higher female mortality at all ages further widens the gap between the two sexes.
There is great variation in sex ratio at state level. Kerala is the only state with a positive sex ratio of 1058/1000. Chhatisgarh (990), Andhra Pradesh 978 and Manipur (978) are the other three states which are approaching towards balanced sex ratio. States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Goa and states of North-East India have higher sex ratio than the national average. On the other hand, states like Haryana, Punjab, Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh have sex ratio lower than 900. Besides M.P., Rajasthan, Bihar, Nagaland, Gujarat, Assam and Jammu & Kashmir have lower sex ratio than national average. In general regions with higher literacy, modernisation and urbanisation, higher christian and tribal population display high level of sex ratio. The inter regional migration has more impact in affecting sex ratio in case of north India. Main reason for very low level of sex ratio in big cities is the male selected immigration.
Age structure is related to proportion of total population in different age-groups. In India, the proportion of population of the age-group of 0-14 years in the total population is about 36 per cent. This ratio is much higher compared to the developed countries which is the outcome of high birth rate and low death rate. The proportion of population of the age-group of 15-59years is about 58 per cent. This is lower than the developed world. This is the working population group. The proportion of 60 plus age group in India is about 6.5%, which is lower than the developed countries. In recent years, the population of reproductive age group is increasing due to decline in the growth rate of population. This may have an adverse impact on the problem of unemployment and underemployment.
Question : Analyse the distribution of population in India in the perspective of natural resources and identity the over-populated and under-populated regions in the country.
(1999)
Answer : The distributional pattern and density of population are highly unevenly distributed over the earth surface and same is the case with natural resources. The pressure of population on the resource base and the available technology determined whether the region is over populated or under populated.
In other words the extent to which resources are utilised and the way in which they are used determine whether an area is under-populated or over-populated. A country is said to have an optimum population when the number of people is imbalanced with the available resource.
Thus, the concept of over population and under population is closely related to distribution of population and exploitation of resources which satisfies the well defined needs of all the members of the community and which varies both in time and the space. The measurement of such a population size is extremely difficult.
As far as India is concerned there is both unevenness distribution of population and the level of resource exploitation.
In the distribution of population a state like Utter Pradesh alone houses 16.17% of the country's population of the 35 states and Union Territories 18 together house 97% of the country's total population. Similarly 5 states comprising Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Maharastra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh with only 35% of country's total area support about 50% of its population. The following figure showing density of population clearly depicts distribution of population in the country.
In order to find over populated and under populated regions of the country the population-resource regionalisation can be attempted since the methods determining the level of over and under population take into account the level of economic development of more precisely resource-utilisation. Same studies have been done on the basis of which 19 population resource regions can be identified. These regions can be again grouped in 3 broad category of dynamic, prospective and problamatic population-resource region.
(a)Dynamic Population Resource Regions: It consists of 5 region covering the parts of West Bengal delta, Deccan trap Tamilnadu, Punjab plains Ganga-Yamuna doab and south eastern Karnataka.
Deltaic region of west Bengal has the very high density of population and maximum cooling effect over the rural population owing to Reavy concentration of industries in the Hoogly industrial region. Likewise in the Deccan region along with Mumbai-Ahmedabad industrial axis the development of infrastructural facilities like transport, power, education and health has encouraged the growth of tertiary and quartenry services like Surat, Nagpur, Solapur etc.
Tamilnadu region has a well-developed system of high population density, low growth rate and industrial commercial activities. The Punjab plains and the Ganga-Yamuna doab are characterised by the well developed agricultural resources. This region has utilised the available soil fertility of alluvial plains with greater efficiency through the advanced agricultural technology.
In the Southern Karnataka plateau rapid industrial development around Banglore has paved may for economic grouth and high-tech industrialisation and organisation which shows better utilisation of available resources through advancement in science and technology.
(b)Prospective Population Resource Regions: In these regions socio-economic constraints have obstructed the utilisation of rich natural resources. There are scattered patches where same industrial centres have emerged in recent years. The north-eastern region comprising districts of Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Bihar, and Orissa is the richest mineral bearing areas of the country. Vast reserves of coal, iron ore etc, have not been fully utilized to promote industrial-economic development of the region. Similar is the case with the Godavari basin which is also rich in mineral resources.
In the Malwa plateau region, the industrial development is in infant stage despite rich deposits of copper are, zinc, bad, lignite, mica, limestone etc. Western and Southern Karnataka plateau has good prospects of hydel power development and region's mineral resources may be utilized for the development of iron and steel alloy and cement industries.
The Brahmaputra valley has good potential for industrial development in view of the availability of Petroleum, coal and rich forest resources. The region is characterized by high demity and very high growth rate of population for which there is inadequate level of resource-utilization.
In the light of above discussion, all the area in this category of prospective region can be put under moderately populated regions since the population dencity is not very high and the level of socio-economic development also ranges between low to medium.
(c)Problematic Population-Resource Regions: This category includes nine resource regions with different physico-cultural background. While some of these regions suffer from the problem of over-population other possesses meagre natural resources to impede the process of development.
In the regions of Middle Ganga plain, Orissa coast, Kerala coast and Lakshadeep group of islands, high-population density coupled with low technology base for resources exploitation is the main cause for poverty and deprivation. The konkan coast and Rajasthan arid plains suffer from resource crunch so as to support large population clusters.
Other category including hilly areas like north-western himalyas, eastern plateau and Andaman-Nicobar group of islands were undulated dissected topography, thin soil cover and low level of human resourse provide less opportunities for better agricultural and in turn socio-economic development of the region. Berides rough topography and limited development of transport facilities have restricted the utilisation of hidel forest and other resources of the region. These areas face serious problem of population and resource development owing to unfavorable condition for human habitation.
Following figure depicts the various population-resource region discussed above study throw sufficient light in the understanding of over-populated and under-populated region of the country:
Question : Discuss the genesis of ethnic and racial diversities in India.
(1999)
Answer : India has been home of humans for thousand of years and therefore the amazing diversity of ethnic and racial characteristics evident in India has its genesis in the manner the sub-continent has been peopled in a process involving a long period of time. According to anthropologists, evidences suggest that emergence of the Homosapiens did not take place within the sub-continents. Streams of migrants with different ethnic or racial backgrounds have entered India at various periods of human history. Their immigration in different periods, their settlement and later movements within the country have led to a high degree of intermingling. The ethnic and racial diversities displayed by Indian population today have thus acquired their distinguishing traits through this long process of intermixing.
There has been a profound role of Geography in the process of immigration and intermixing that followed. The mighty Himalayas in the north and north-east and the vast expanse of sea around the Indian peninsula allowed the migration into the region mainly through the Himalayan passes in the north-west.
The early migrants moved along river valleys and settled down. As later waves of men came in, they either mixed with earlier settlers or drove them away to inaccessible forests or mountain regions. 'What saved these earlier races from being destroyed or uprooted totally was India's geographical position which lay out of the way of the main routes, protected by mountain barriers which only permitted a trickle of the great population currents to reach her. Once having reached the densely populated Gangetic valley these invaders without constant reinforcement from their homelands, got submerged in the local population' (K.M. Panikkar). Thus the entire process of immigration and intermixing that followed was greatly influenced by the attraction of abundant resources found in the region and its unique physiography.
Such a complex and long process of intermixing within distinct physical units of the sub-continent having their own set of physiography climate and ecology led to the development of different languages, beliefs and other elements of culture. This resulted in the formation of diverse ethnic groups in the country.
The earliest settlers in Indian belonged to Negroid race represented by tribes of Andman islands and Puliyan of peninsular hills. Then came Proto-Australoids, Mongoloids, Mediterranean, Alpinods, Dinarics and Nordics. Their present distribution is shown in the figure given below.
Question : Critically examine the factors affecting the distributional pattern of population in India.
(1997)
Answer : Population is the most potent resource which can alter the entire face of the country, if utilised prudently. With its total population of 1027.01 millions which is 16.7% of the world's total population, India is the second largest country of the world after China.
Unevenness of distribution is an important feature of India's population. Uttar Pradesh alone houses 16.17% of the country's population. The state's population is more than the total population of Japan (in terms of population). Five states consisting of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh with only 35% of the country's total area support about 50% of its population.
Factors affecting the distribution of population can be grouped into three classes:
(a) Physical factors: The nature of terrain, soil, climate and availability of mineral resources are major physical factors affecting the distribution of population. Level lands with thick fertile soils, receiving sufficient rainfall or having irrigation facilities, are usually densely populated.
(b) Socio-Economic Factors: Humans have tried to modify the physical forces through their technological know-how and socio-political organisations. Supporting capacity of different countries therefore varies widely. Primary activities cannot support a high density of population, as do the secondary and tertiary activities. As such, highly urbanised and industrialised districts have very high density of population. Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi are typical example of such areas. Similarly, districts adopting mode rn high yielding crops have high density of population. Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab fall in this category.
(c) Demographic Factors: Among the demographic factors affecting the distribution of population are fertility, mortality and migration. Immigration plays a crucial role in concentration of huge population in metropolitan cities. High density in urbanised and industrialised districts is mainly due to large scale migration of population.
The impact of these factors on the population distribution of India can be critically examined by studying the pattern of population density in the country.
The study of the density of the country specially at the district level is a fairly good measure to ascertain the pattern of population distribution of the country. We can have three areas of population density in the country:
