History Of India

• Every revolt brings in number of changes. They play
• Significant role in creating a feeling of self realization of the masses
• A major role in breaking the ideological vacuum
• Significant role in introducing various modern thoughts related to liberty, equality, fraternity, rights etc. helped in breaking various superstitions and discriminatory beliefs.
• In France, the intellectual revolt was brought about by a group of philosophers of whom the most prominent was Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. Their writings gave expression to the discontent and indignation which lay latent in the heart of French people. He exposed the fallacy of the theory of divine rights of kings and the evils of absolute monarchy. Voltaire, on the other hand, directed his attack against the bigotry and intolerance of the church. His fiery shafts did much to undermine the respect for authority the minds of people.
• Rousseau came forward with a plan of special reconstruction. According to him society rests upon agreement of the persons who compose it. Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains is the main burden of his work “Social Contract”. He proclaimed the equality of men, and sovereignty of people. Such a theory aimed not merely at reform, but overall reorganization of people. The influence of Rousseau was treme-ndous in France and supplied the revolution with its fighting creed.
• Nevertheless, these philosophers were a powerful factor in the Revolution. In soil prepared by grievances, these writers flung broadcast the seed of philosophical speculation, which is generally the presage of the Revolution.

Answer : Colonial India in the 19th century was marked by a radical outburst of intellectual activity and an upheaval in the social and religious fields. The ground for the growth of Indian nationalism and political awakening was prepared by the socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century viz. Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Ram Krishan Mission and the Theosophical Society. The spread of modern education and the work of the Christian missionaries, along with the socio-economic policies of the British were instrumental in creating an intellectual class of people who were making efforts to rejuvenate India. It was this educated class that was responsible for questioning the social ills of that time and for giving a new direction to Indian society. The pioneer amongst them was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. The subsequent social reforms movement led by leaders like Keshab Chandra Sen, Swami Vivekananda, Jyotibha Phule, Dayanand Saraswati led to abolishment of "Sati", polygamy, early child marriages, infanticide; recognition of widow marriage and inter caste marriages; development of educational institutions and women emancipation. All the religious and social reformers had done a lot of work in the field of education. Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand, Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar and Sir Sayeed Ahmad Khan opened many colleges and schools for sake of Indian masses. They laid emphasis on political social, economical and religious liberty and fundamental rights. The most significant contribution was perhaps towards the demise of long held superstitious beliefs and frontal attack on institution of caste that hampered the social unity and cohesion.

• Although these social and religious reform movements grew in different parts of the country over different issues, it led to awakening of people and this contributed a great deal towards Indian nationalism.

Answer : The tribal groups were an important and integral part of Indian life. Before their annexation and subsequent incorporation in the British Territories, they had their own social and economic systems. These systems were traditional in nature and satisfied the needs of the tribals. The land and Forests were the main source of livelihood.

The British policies proved harmful to the tribal society. This destroyed their relatively self sufficient economy and communities. British adverse policies including following acts:

1. Increase in land revenue and forceful collection and Commercialization of forest produce. British pursuing their commercial interest cut down forests for crops and minerals and thus made the tribals angry. Timber and non-timber produce was made exclusive for British and traditional tribals were deprived of their livelihood resources.
2. Restricted tribals use of forest produces and also stopped practice of Jhum cultivation. So the lands earlier used by tribals on a community basis were no longer available to them.
3. In place of tribal chiefs recognized as Zamindars, British introduced outsiders like traders, moneylenders etc. These middlemen exploited tribals by usurping lands, forcing them into debt traps and imposing upon them unpaid labour form i.e. ‘Begar’.

XAXA Committee Report

Land Alienation, Displacement and Enforced Migrations

• The new legislation, 'The Right To Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation And Resettlement Act, 2013, is progressive in the sense that it is the first to legally mandate rehabilitation of Project Affected Persons. However, it fails to address the need for minimizing of acquisition of land and resources. This is not surprising, since the objective of the Act, which seeks to address concerns of those whose livelihoods are affected, simultaneously aims at facilitating land acquisition for industrialization and urbanization. This is in keeping with the broader liberalization policies. Such policies will result in more displacement in Central India for mining and in the Northeast for dams
• The 2013 Act already has a provision for safeguarding food security and states that multi-crop irrigated land will not be acquired, except as a last resort measure. Further, the State Government is to set limits on the acquisition of such land under this law. States are also required to set a limit on the area of agricultural land that can be acquired in any given district. However, there is no mention of the need to protect tribal land and community resources. Hence, a suitable provision is required to be incorporated in the Act, to safeguard tribal land and community resources in Scheduled Areas and disallow acquisition by a non-tribal, including private companies.
• The definition of 'public purpose' in the new law is very wide and will only lead to greater acquisition and displacement in Scheduled Areas. The exercise of 'eminent domain' and definition of 'public purpose' should be severely limited
• Government agencies acquiring land with the ultimate purpose to transfer it to private companies for stated public purpose, should be kept outside the ambit of the new law, as the Public-Private Partnership mode of acquiring land is simply a backdoor method of alienating land in violation of the Constitutional provision to prohibit or restrict transfer of tribal land to non-tribals in Scheduled Areas.
• Gram Sabha consent should be mandatory for acquisition of land by the Government for its own use as well. Moreover the Act does not have a provision to the effect that exploitation of natural resources in Scheduled Areas must be with the consent of the Gram Sabha. This should be rectified.

Likelihood of History repeating itself

• Sixty per cent of the forest area in the country is in tribal area. Fifty-one of the 58 districts with forest cover greater than 67 per cent are tribal districts. Three States - Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand - account for 70 per cent of India's coal reserves, 80 per cent of its high-grade iron ore, 60 per cent of its bauxite and almost 100 per cent of its chromite reserves. Forty per cent of those displaced by dams are tribal peoples. A look at violent conflict, whether in Schedule V States or in Schedule VI States, shows that "the state is involved in all of these conflicts in some way or another."
• The need for tribal communities to have continued and uninterrupted access to forests for livelihoods and the responsibility of the state in securing these livelihoods, ensuring their viability, and providing an account of their diversity; creating enabling conditions for the dignity of work and sustainability; and plans for protecting and removing both conflict and livelihood degradation caused by the repressive presence of the forest bureaucracy in tribal areas are issues that merit greater attention.
• The absence of state accountability and responsibility are at the core of the problem.
• Tribal land alienation and dispossession are at the crux of the crisis tribal communities face across the country - acquisition of land by the state using the principle of 'eminent domain'; manipulation of records and incorrect interpretation of law; encroachment of tribal land by non-tribal people and immigrants; creation of national parks; and armed conflict resulting in forced migration and eviction from homelands. There are questions related to the reutilization of arbitrary arrest, illegal detention and torture in custody of tribal people living in conflict areas. There are no figures publicly available on the demographic profile of prisoner/detainee populations in Schedule V areas. The important guarantee under Article 21 of the Constitution - right to life and personal liberty - is in a state of perpetual suspension in tribal areas. If one were to go by the data and observations put forth by the High Level Committee, once more we learn that the state is waging war at every level against tribal communities across States. Added to this is criminal neglect and violent corruption that has systematically obstructed the delivery of public goods and services. There is a proliferation of report of bureaucratic writing generally -as an end in itself.

Answer : Factors that caused spread of Buddhism to other countries:

• Simplicity of philosophy made it attractive in many parts of Asia
• Patronage by rulers such as Ashoka, Kanishka of India and Atlai khan of Mongolia adopted Buddhism. These rulers practice it and followed it which made it possible to spread far and wide and outside of the subcontinent.Some of them also sent missionaries to other countries such as Ashoka sent missionaries to Sri Lanka
• Trade Routes: people to people contact through business also led to the spread of Buddhism in Central Asia, in this Ancient silk route played a prominent role (strategic location with respect to ancient silk route)
• Missionary Activity: Following from the traditions of Buddha, who gave sermons and traveled to neighbouring kingdoms, many Buddhist monks introduced Buddhism to new places. Bodhidharma is regarded to have introduced Buddhism to China.
• Monistic tradition of this philosophy that involved wandering monks seeking alms and spreading the discourse ensure its spread.

How this Cultural Link Helped India: Buddhism has for long been a part of our cultural links with the outside world. Of late, there has been a renewed emphasis on India's Buddhist soft power potential, which can be used as a bridge in our foreign relations. While on one hand, it can help us find a spiritual connection with China; on the other it can help us arrest the decline in our relations with Sri Lanka. The Buddha can help India reinforce the strength of our economic and political relations with Japan and Korea. In addition to this, the Buddhist philosophy also has the capability of unlocking the vast tourism potential in India given that India is home to many venerated Buddhist heritage sites. This would go a long way in accelerating our country's economic development by the promotion of tourism. Finally, this philosophy as link can be used to draw Asian and South-East Asian countries into a tight orbit, which would help in the establishment of a new Asian century and new world order led by Asian countries.

India's Buddhist Diplomacy

• India recently organized a conference "Samvad- A Global Hindu-Buddhist Initiative on Conflict Avoidance and Environment Consciousness" where PM Modi said that "India is taking the lead in promoting the Buddhist heritage across Asia"
• With this India is playing Buddhism card on different fronts with a hope to position India as a culturally invaluable connector between Asian countries, even if those countries see each other as geopolitical rivals.
• Also India made Buddha Purnima an official holiday to be celebrated each year, a politically astute move intended for both domestic and international consumption.
• Now the Indian government is taking Buddhist emphasis in diplomacy even further with novel projects being designed to reach out to entire Asia with particular focus on East Asia. These include conferences with policymakers, academics, and monks, and visits by prominent Buddhist masters to Indian sites, all under the watchful eye of the Foreign Office's branch for cultural diplomacy, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations.
• Internationally, India's intentions are pragmatic as well as nostalgic: since India is looking eastwards to the economic powerhouses of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, India has discerned the need to offer a relationship that runs deeper than the hunger for trade or GDP growth. Only Buddhism can connect these vastly different countries with different allegiances and goals to a single spiritual source from 2,500 years ago.

What India should do to take an advantage of this great religion for its growth and international relations?

• Invest in protecting and promoting Buddhist sites
• Encouraging study of Buddhist art, philosophy, and literature in Indian universities
• Providing internationally acceptable infrastructure for faith-based tourism and scholarship, are the core activities that would benefit India's soft diplomacy in the long term.

Conclusion: although Buddhism connects India with the East Asian Economic powerhouses naturally, but still not till recently it did much to take advantage of such an advantage.

Answer : Lord Curzon occupies a high place among the rulers of British India like Lord Wellesley and Lord Dalhousie. He was a thorough imperialist. In order to make the administration efficient, Lord Curzon overhauled the entire administrative machinery. His internal administration may be studied under the following heads.

• Educational Reforms: Curzon took a serious view of the fall in the standard of education and discipline in the educational institutions. In his view the universities had degenerated into factories for producing political revolutionaries. To set the educational system in order, he instituted in 1902, a Universities Commission to go into the entire question of university education in the country. On the basis of the findings and recommendations of the Commission, Curzon brought in the Indian Universities Act of 1904, which brought all the universities in India under the control of the government.
• Police and Military Reforms: Curzon believed in efficiency and discipline. He instituted a Police Commission in 1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer. Curzon accepted all the recommendations and implemented them. He set up training schools for both the officers and the constables and introduced provincial police service. As for the remodeling of the army, it was by and large done by Lord Kitchener, the Commander-in-Chief in India in Curzon’s time.
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899): The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the Calcutta Corporation Act in 1899 by which the strength of the elected members was reduced and that of the official members increased. Curzon gave more representations to the English people as against the Indians in the Calcutta Corporation. There was strong resentment by the Indian members against Curzon’s anti-people measures.
• Preservation of Archaeological objects: Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of historical importance in India. No Viceroy in India before or after him took such a keen interest in archaeological objects. He passed a law called the Ancient Monuments Act, 1904 which made it obligatory on the part of the government and local authorities to preserve the monuments of archaeological importance and their destruction an offence.
• Partition of Bengal, 1905: The Partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4, July 1905. The new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included the whole of Assam and the Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca. Though Curzon justified his action on administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal. This led to the anti-partition agitation all over the country. This had also intensified the National Movement.
• Estimate of LordCurzon: Lord Curzon assumed his office, when he was forty years old. All his reform measures were preceded by an expert Commission and its recommendations. He made a serious study of the Indian problems in all their aspects. At the beginning Curzon earned the popularity and admiration of the Indian people. He lost the popularity by the act of Partition of Bengal.

Answer : The Simla Agreement signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan on 2nd July 1972 was much more than a peace treaty seeking to reverse the consequences of the 1971 war (i.e. to bring about withdrawals of troops and an exchange of PoWs). It was a comprehensive blue print for good neighbourhood relations between India and Pakistan. Under the Simla Agreement both countries undertook to abjure conflict and confrontation which had marred relations in the past, and to work towards the estab-lishment of durable peace, friendship and coo-peration.

The Simla Agreement contains a set of guiding principles, mutually agreed to by India and Pakistan, which both sides would adhere to while managing relations with each other. These emphasize: respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; non-interference in each other’s internal affairs; respect for each other’s unity, political independence; sovereign equality; and abjuring hostile propaganda. The following principles of the Agreement are, however, particularly noteworthy:

• A mutual commitment to the peaceful resolution of all issues through direct bilateral approaches.
• To build the foundations of a cooperative relationship with special focus on people to people contacts.
• To uphold the inviolability of the Line of Con-trol in Jammu and Kashmir, which is a most important CBM between India and Pakistan, is a key to durable peace.

India has faithfully observed the Simla Agreement in the conduct of its relations with Pakistan. But looking at the hostile approach of Pakistan it would be aptly right to say that it is far away from achieving its purpose

Answer : Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not, although it is popularly considered to be one in India.

Arguments against include:

• A united India did not exist at that time in political terms
• The rebellion remained confined to the ranks of the Bengal Army (which nonetheless was the largest of the armies in India) and in North-Central India
• The mutiny was put down with the help of other Indian soldiers drawn from the Madras Army, the Bombay Army and the Sikh regiments
• Many princes and maharajahs did not participate in the rebellion, and those that did were basically interested in reviving and reclaiming their own principalities and fiefdoms, not in creating a United India;
• The Army and the Princes, who were the principal instigators of the rebellion of 1857, played no part in the Nationalist movement as it emerged in the 1880s;
• The Westernized intellectuals supported the British; however, an exception to this rule was Azimullah Khan, a Westernized rebel supporter.

A second school of thought while ackno-wledging the validity of the above-mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India's independence. The reasons advanced are:

• Even though the rebellion had various causes (e.g., sepoy grievances, British high-handedness, the Doctrine of Lapse etc.), most of the rebel sepoys set out to revive the old Mughal Empire, that signified a national symbol for them, instead of heading home or joining services of their regional principalities, which would not have been unreasonable if their revolt were only inspired by grievances.
• There was a widespread popular revolt in many areas such as Awadh, Bundelkhand and Rohilkhand. The rebellion was therefore more than just a military mutiny, and it spanned more than one region.
• The sepoys did not seek to revive small kingdoms in their regions instead they repeatedly proclaimed a "country-wide rule" of the Moghuls and vowed to drive out the British from "India," as they knew it then. (The sepoys ignored local princes and proclaimed in cities they took over: Khalq Khuda Ki, Mulk Badshah Ka, Hukm Subahdar Sipahi Bahadur Ka - i.e., the world belongs to God, the country to the Emperor and executive powers to the Sepoy Commandant in the city). The objective of driving out "foreigners" from not only one's own area but from their conception of the entirety of "India," signifies a nationalist sentiment.
• The troops of the Bengal Army were used extensively in warfare by the British and had therefore traveled extensively across the Indian subcontinent, leading them perhaps to develop some notion of a nation-state called India. They displayed for the first time in this mutiny, some contemporary British accounts (Malleson) suggest, patriotic sentiments in the modern sense.

In short, we may summarize the discuss-ion in following terms:

1. If the criterion of a National War of Inde-pendence is set as "a war (or numerous conflicts) spread all over the nation cutting across regional lines," the rebellion in that case does not qualify as a war of India's independence.
2. If the criterion for a National War of In-dependence is set as "a war, which even if geographically confined to certain regions, is waged with the intention of driving out from the complete national area a power perceived to be foreign," then it was a war of national independence.

This discussion shows that the term "national war" is subject to individual opinions and is a matter of interpretation.History cannot be answered decisively.

• Transparency, accountability and adherence to the rule of law depends on a systemic arrangement and coherency between the three arms of the state, viz. the Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
• The Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India, officially known as The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, was enacted during the Emergency (25 June 1975 – 21 March 1977) by Indira Gandhi government.
• The42nd Amendment is regarded as the most controversial constitutional amendment in Indian history. It attempted to reduce the power of the Supreme Court and High Courts to pronounce upon the constitutional validity of laws. It laid down the Fundamental Duties of Indian citizens to the nation. This amendment brought about the most widespread changes to the Constitution in its history, and is sometimes called a "mini-Constitution" or the "Constitution of Indira".
• The most important changes were designed to strengthen the executive at the cost of the judiciary, and thus disturb the carefully crafted system of Constitutional checks and bala-nce between the three organs of the government. During emergency unlimited power centralised and concentrated in the hands of the Prime Minister, which is exercised in an "authoritarian manner".
• The 42nd Amendment drew nationwide criticism, for providing sweeping powers to the Prime Minister's Office, virtually exempting it from any kind of scrutiny. The amendment has been criticized by legal experts and political activists for attempting to deprive citizens of direct access to the Supreme Court. It started a debate in the country over whether the amendment sought to change the very basic structure of the Constitution. Chief Justice Y.V. Chandrachud reacting to the amendment stated, "Government and Judges might come and go but democracy; the basic features of the Constitution should remain eternal".
• Events of emergency thus made a systemic arrangement and coherency between the three arms of the state, viz. the Executive, Legislature and Judiciary a necessity.

Answer : Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel took over as the Home Minister of nascent nation at a very important juncture in history and devoted himself wholeheartedly to make sure that the nation which was already partitioned remained united and intact.

• India was categorized into hundreds of various different kingdoms, separated by conflicting ideas and interests before independence. While leaving, the British left to us a 1/3rd India with 100 kingdoms separated from each other. Independent Maharajas who did not consider their relationship with the new State of India was ruled over these individual kingdoms. Actually, it is considered that in every hundred miles, one individual kingdom would stumble to other political island with an Independent Maharaja ruling over individual kingdoms.
• On 15th August 1947, Patel took up the challenge and acted with determination, vision and statesmanship and quietly cleared out the various labyrinths. He showed statesmanship of remarkably order. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the Indian Iron man who travelled the breadth and length of the country and convinced 100 regional kings to join their kingdoms with the Independent Union of India. His best efforts empowered the foundation of a United India where differences joint to develop a pool of humanity.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel tackled the question of 550 and principalities and odd State territories in a great manner which left his wildest critics. Within a year Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel redrew the Indian map with every princely State merging the union of India and thereby, making part of the political stream of life that was prosperous with harmony and cultural unity. Within a few months Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel dismantled without shedding any blood. Since the dawn of its history, the monarchies which managed over to Nehru a unified India on which to develop a democratic edifice and therefore Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel enabled Nehru to become the builder of India modern democratic.
• For the first time in Indian history stretched over ages, India became united and one. In order to add plume, this achievement occurred without shedding a drop of blood. So, that was the miracle of his personality. The amazing qualities of leadership Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel had shown as Satyagraha leader, flowered in best way in the management of the country, administration of order and law and making sure the stability of the country and making it impenetrable.

Answer : Moderates and Extremist during the Indian National Movement had the same objective and that was freedom of the nation but their ways and means to achieve it was quite different.

Major differences:

Moderates:

1. Social base is very limited to zamindars and upper middle classes in towns.
2. Ideological inspiration western liberal thought and European history.
3. Believed in England’s providential mission in India.
4. Believed political connections with Britain to be in India’s social, political and cultural interests.
5. Professed loyalty to the British Crown.
6. Believed that the movement should be limited to middle class intelligentsia; masses not yet ready for participation in political work.
7. Demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in services.
8. Insisted on the use of constitutional methods only.
9. They were patriots and did not play the role of a comprador class.

Extremists:

1. Social base gets extended by educated middle and lower middle classes in towns.
2. Ideological inspiration from Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu traditional symbols.
3. Rejected ‘providential mission theory’ as an illusion.
4. Believed that political connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
5. Believed that the British Crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty.
6. Had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices.
7. Demanded Swaraj as the panacea for Indian ills.
8. Did not hesitate to use extra- constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to achieve their objectives.
9. They were patriots who made sacrifices for the sake of the country.

The propaganda by the Moderates did not reach the masses. No all-India campaigns of the scale of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement had been organised earlier by the Moderates and, in this campaign, they discovered that they were not its leaders, which was rather natural.

The Extremist ideology and its functioning also lacked consistency. Its advocates ranged from open members and secret sympathisers to those opposed to any kind of political violence. Its leaders Aurobindo, Tilak, B.C. Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai—had different perceptions of their goal. For Tilak, swaraj meant some sort of self-government, while for Aurobindo it meant complete independence from foreign rule.

But at the politico-ideological level, their emphasis on mass participation and on the need to broaden the social base of the movement was a progressive improvement upon the Moderate politics. They raised patriotism from a level of ‘academic pastime’ to one of ‘service and sacrifice for the country’. But the politically progressive Extremists proved to be social reactionaries.

They had revivalist and obscurantist undertones attached to their thoughts. Tilak’s opposition to the Age of Consent Bill (which would have raised the marriageable age for girls from 10 years to 12 years, though his objection was mainly that such reforms must come from people governing themselves and not under an alien rule), his organising of Ganapati and Shivaji festivals as national festivals, his support to anti-cow killing campaigns, etc. portrayed him as a Hindu nationalist. Similarly B.C. Pal and Aurobindo spoke of a Hindu nation and Hindu interests.

Though the seemingly revivalist and obscurantist tactics of the Extremists were directed against the foreign rulers, they had the effect of promoting a very unhealthy relationship between politics and religion, the bitter harvests of which the Indians had to reap in later years.

Answer : The non-cooperation movement led by Gandhiji was such a mass movement which had never been seen before and after the Great Rebellion of 1857. India for the first time saw a leader who had ability to fight face to face. Since swaraj was not achieved within a year as Gandhiji had assured, the movement was apparantly a failure. However, the significance and importance of Non-Cooperation movement cannot be denied.

Importance and immediate good results: Indian mill-owners earned a good profit due to the programme of boycott. The import of sugar from England decreased considerably. The import of British cotton-goods decreased from Rs. 6.7 crores to Rs. 2.8 crores within a period of six months. Likewise, the import of iron decreased to 50%.

Political importance: Popularity of the Congress and the movement increased among the masses. The non-cooperation movement certainly demonstrated that the Indian National Congress commanded the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people. The spread of the movement was also nation-wide. It may be true that some areas were more active than others, but there were few that showed no sign of activity at all.

Participation of Muslims: Participation of the Muslims in the movement and the maintenance of communal harmony was also a great achievement. Muslim participation gave the movement a mass character.

Success in several cases: According to R.C. Majumdar, the non-cooperation movement was an acid test for the people. The movement was a success in several cases:

1. People became conscious of their political right.
2. People lost their trust in British administration.
3. They became confident of self-reliance.
4. The government failed to create fear in their mind.

Conclusion: The non-cooperation movement evoked an unprecedented enthusiasm throughout the country. According to Dr. Tarachand, the non-cooperation movement was the first movement without weapon in the history of the world. It gave a new complexion to the people's urge for freedom. It marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of India's freedom movement.

Answer : It was introduced by Lord Wellesley. It was the most important tool by which the British expanded their influence and authority. Principles of Subsidiary Alliance System -

A.1. Control of foreign policy of subordinate state (by ensuring that any war and peaceis to be declared with their consent, placing a British representative in their court, no recruitment of any foreign expert);

A.2. Control of their security and Defense - by stationing a permanent British Army on the expenses of State as subsidy, no right to maintain its own army.

With this native states became mere titular heads. Even though they promised they will not interfere in day to day administration, they did more often than not and these states could not do anything about it.

They lost all qualities of sovereignty as they could not protect themselves, depended on British Army and for all types of foreign policy related decisions. The subsidy or compensation rates were fixed high and many states had to cede territories in place of cash maintenance fee.

Answer : Swadeshi Movement-Introduction: The Swadeshi movement, part of the Indian independence movement and the developing Indian nationalism, was an economic strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by following the principles of Swadeshi which had some success. Strategies of the Swadeshi movement involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production processes.

The Swadeshi Movement: The Swadeshi movement had its genesis in the antipartition movement which was started to oppose the British decision to partition Bengal. The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi movement was made on August 7, 1905 at a meeting held at the Calcutta Town hall. At the August 7 meeting, the famous Boycott resolution was passed. Boycott was first suggested by Krishan Kumar Mitra in Sanjivani in 1905.

The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of Swadeshi and to buy Indian products only. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations, public meetings and resolutions were not in of an something more concrete was needed and the answer was swadeshi and boycott.

An important aspect of the swadeshi movement was the emphasis placed on self-reliance or atmasaki. Self-reliance meant assertion of national dignity, honour and self-confidence.

Significance:

• Swadeshi Movement brought a new dimension to the Indian freedom movement.
• The terrorist secret societies like 'Anushilon Samity' and 'Jugantar Dal' got their chances of rising. According to Will Durant "It was in 1905 that the Indian revolution began".
• The anti-partition movement gave rise to extremism. In 1906 A.D. Dadabhai Naoroji put up 'Swaraj' as the aims of the Congress.
• The Swadeshi Movement had deep impact on Bengal's social and cultural lives.
• Make In India: The 'Make in India' programme aims at promoting India as an important investment destination and a global hub for manufacturing, design and innovation. The 'Make in India' initiative does not target manufacturing sector alone, but also aims at promoting entrepreneurship in the country. The initiative is further aimed at creating conducive environment for investment, modern and efficient infrastructure, opening up new sectors for foreign investment and forging a partnership between government and industry through positive mindset.

Answer : It was in 1857 itself that Payam-e-Azadi started publication in Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to fight against the British. The paper was soon confiscated and anyone found with a copy of the paper was prosecuted for sedition. Again, the first Hindi daily ‘Samachar Sudhavarashan’ and two newspapers in Urdu and Persian respectively ‘Doorbeen’ and ‘Sultan-ul-Akbar’ came out.

It faced trial in 1857 for having published a 'Firman' by Bahadur Shah Zafar, urging the people to drive the British out of India. Hindi patriot, established in 1853 publish a play Neel Darpan 1861 , which start a huge movement , the play urging the people to stop cultivating the Indigo crop for the white traders Tilak kesri , A Marathi newspaper became one of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom movement. It also made the anti-partition movement of Bengal a national issue. "When first ever meeting of congress held in Mumbai, 1885, all the front seaters were editors of newspapers first ever resolution proposed to congress was moved by the editor of The Hindu, G. Subramanya Iyer. In this resolution, it was demanded that the government should appoint a committee to enquire into the functioning of Indian administration. The second resolution was also moved by a journalist from Poona, Chiplunkar in which the Congress was urged to demand for the abolition of India Council which ruled the country from Britain.

During his stay in South Africa, Gandhi had brought out Indian Opinion and after settling in India, he started the publication of Young India; Navjeevan, Harijan, Harijan Sevak and Harijan Bandhu. There were numbers of congress president who were editors like Ferozeshah Mehta who had started the Bombay Chronicle and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya who edited the daily, Hindustan etc"Subash Chandra Bose and C.R. Das were not journalists but they acquired the papers like Forward and Advance which later attained national status. Jawaharlal Nehru founded the National Herald. In case of the revolutionary movement, it did not begin with guns and bombs but it started with the publication of newspapers. The first to be mentioned in this context is Yugantar publication of which was started by Barindra Kumar Ghosh who edited it also. "When the Ghadar party was organised in America, Lala Hardayal started publication of the journal 'Ghadar'. Within one year, millions of copies of this journal were published in Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi and English and sent to India and to all parts of the world where Indians were residing. In 1905 Shyamji Krishna Verma started publication of a journal Indian Sociologist from London. It used to publish reports of political activities taking place at the India House in London."The Bharat-Mitra was a famous Hindi journal of Calcutta which started its publication on May 17, 1878 as a fortnightly. It contributed a lot in propagating the cause of the freedom movement. The journal exposed the British conspiracy to usurp Kashmir.

Answer : The Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) in the state of Gujarat, India was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the Indian Independence Movement. Its success gave rise to Vallabhbhai Patel as one of the greatest leaders of the independence struggle.

The Bardoli taluqa in Surat district had witnessed intense politicisation after the coming of Gandhi on the national political scene. In 1925, Bardoli in Gujarat suffered from floods and famine, causing crop production to suffer and leaving farmers facing great financial troubles. The movement sparked off in January 1926 when the authorities decided to increase the land revenue by 30 per cent. The Congress leaders were quick to protest and a Bardoli Inquiry Committee was set up to go into the issue. The committee found the revenue hike to be unjustified. In February 1926, Vallabhai Patel was called to lead the movement. The women of Bardoli gave him the title of "Sardar".

Under Patel, the Bardoli peasants resolved to refuse payments of the revised assessment until the Government appointed an independent tribunal or accepted the current amount as full payment. Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was brought out to mobilise public opinion. An intelligence wing was set up to make sure all the tenants followed the movement's resolutions. Those who opposed the movement faced a social boycott. Special emphasis was placed on the mobilisation of women. Gandhi reached Bardoli to stand by in case of any emergency. The Government was looking for a graceful withdrawal now. It set the condition that first the enhanced rent be paid by all the occupants (not actually done). Then, a committee went into the whole affair and found the revenue hike to be unjustified and recommended a rise of 6.03 per cent only.During the 1930s, the peasant awakening was influenced by the Great Depression in the industrialised countries and the Civil Disobedience Movement which took the form of no-rent, no-revenue movement in many areas. Also, after the decline of the active phase movement (1932) many new entrants to active politics started looking for suitable outlets for release of their energies and took to organisation of peasants.

Answer : The victory of British at the Battle of Buxar on October 22, 1764, is considered even more important that their previous victory at the Battle of Plassey.

In this battle, the combined forces of the Mughal Empire, the Nawabs of Bengal, and the Nawab of Awadh, were defeated by the British. Thus, the British East India Company became a dominant power in the region. This is considered the first step toward the British imperialism policy to conquer entire India.

The reasons why the battle of Buxar was an event of utmost importance in the history of India, particularly Bengal, is mentioned below:

1. Firstly, it proved once again the military superiority of the English and exposed the inherent weakness of the native force
2. Secondly, it was with the defeat of Mir Kasim that the rule of independent Nawab finally came to an end.
3. Lastly, it paved the way to the grant of Diwani to the East India Company by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

In the words of Sir James Stephen, "the Battle of Buxar deserves far more credit than the battle of Plassey as the origin of the British power in India."

Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh, wanted very much to destroy the English supremacy in Bengal. But he could not venture to attack the English settlements side he felt more encouraged. Before Mir Kasim went to Oudh, Shah Alam, the titular Mughal Emperor had already taken refuge in the court of Nawab Shuja-ud-daula. He had already promised the Nawab a great financial assistance in case of a war between the Nawab and the English.

Their combined army met the British forces under the command of Major Munro at Buxar on 22nd October 1764. Major Munro inflicted a crushing defeat on their combined forces. Mir Kasim fled to the North-West and died. Shah Alam left the cause of Shuja-ud-daula and found shelter in the British camp. Shuja-ud-daula fought until 1765 when he was completely defeated and sued for peace.

Answer : The reports about the mixing of bone dust in Atta (flour) and the introduction of the Enfield rifle enhanced the sepoys growing disaffection with the Government. The cartridge of the new rifle had to be bitten off before loading and the grease was reportedly made of beef and pig fat. The Army administration did nothing to allay these fears, and the sepoys felt their religion was in grave danger.

• The revolt began at Meerut, on May 10, 1857 and then, gathering force rapidly, soon embraced a vast area from the Punjab in the north and the Narmada in the south to Bihar in the east and Rajputana in the west. They released their imprisoned comrades, killed their officers and unfurled the banner of revolt. They set off for Delhi after sunset. In Delhi, the local infantry joined them, killed their own European officers. The aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the emperor of India. Delhi was soon to become the centre of the Great Revolt and Bahadur Shah, its symbol. This spontaneous raising of the last Mughal king to the leadership of the country was recognition of the fact that the long reign of Mughal dynasty had become the traditional symbol of India's political unity.
• This was the first sign of unity among the rebels. All of them revolted against the Britishers in the name of the Mughal emperor. Further, to keep on the momentum and show sign of respect to each other they proclaimed various measures like ban on slaughter of cows, tying rakhi to each other, participating in various festival etc enhanced this unity.
• The revolt of the sepoys was accompanied by a rebellion of the civil population, particularly in the north-western provinces and Awadh. It is the widespread participation in the revolt by the peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, religious mendicants, priests and civil servants which gave it real strength as well as the character of a popular revolt. They also attacked the British-established law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), revenue records and police stations.
• Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to different parts of the country. This happened due to the unity of different religion, class of the Indians instilled by the rebels mutual respect for each other.

Answer : The 1920 session of the Indian National Congress, marking a watershed in the history of the freedom movement, was held in Nagpur. But later events showed that the historic session turned the central Indian city into a focal point of the long drawn struggle that culminated in the country's emancipation.

• A resolution calling for complete non-cooperation and boycott, virtually amounting to a war cry against the British rule in India, was the hallmark of the Nagpur session. It was also significant in many other ways. Of the 15,000 delegates to the session, where Mohammed Ali Jinnah and the Ali brothers were special invitees, more than 1,000 were Muslims apart from 169 women.
• It was at this session that Gandhi out rightly rejected British Labour Party invitees' counsel to reconsider the non-cooperation resolution as a confrontationist stance of the Congress would make it difficult for the British well-wishers of India to lobby for them in England.
• Gandhi declared that Indians have no true friends outside India. 'The people of India have to shape their own destiny, and self-reliance and non-cooperation are the legitimate non-violent weapons of our struggle for which we are preparing ourselves.'
• Boycott of government colleges, bonfire of foreign goods and picketing of liquor shops were the actions that the rattled British rulers tried to suppress, using brute force. A record 20,000 people were dumped in the region's jails. Vallabhbhai and Vitthalbhai Patel successfully led a spectacular 'zenda Satyagraha' (flag agitation) in the city Aug 18, 1922. Women gingerly participated in the movement even as the police used canes and public flogging at will.

Answer : Trade unionism is a world-wide movement. The evolution and growth of trade unionism has been sine qua non with growth in industrialisation. Accordingly, the evolution of trade unionism in India is traced back towards the latter half of the nineteenth century.

• The origin and development of trade union movement in India may well be studied under distinct phases with their distinguishing features from others.
• Pre-1918 Phase: The setting up of textiles and jute mills and laying of the railways since 1850 began the way for that emergence of industrial activity and, in turn, labour movement in India. Some researchers have traced the origin of labour movement in India dated back to 1860. However, most of the writers on the subject trace the history of labour movement in India since 1875.
• The first labour agitation, under the guidance and leadership of Mr. S. S. Bengalee, a social reformist and philanthropist, started in Bombay in 1875 to protect against the appalling conditions of workers in factories, especially those of women and children and appealed to the authorities to introduce legislation for the amelioration of their working conditions.
• As a result, the first Factory Commission was appointed in Bombay in the year 1875 and the first Factories Act was passed in 1881.The establishment of Bombay Mill Hands' Association is considered as the first phase of the trade union movement in India. In 1905, the Printers Association of Calcutta and Dock Union Board in Bombay were formed.
• There was labour unrest in India at the end of the First World War. In several industries, the workers went on strikes to secure wage increases. The Russian Revolution and the Industrial Labor Organization have inspired the Indian labourers to launch trade unions like the Spinners Union and Weaver's Union which had been established in Madras and Ahmedabad respectively.
• A series of associations such as the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants in India (1897), The Printers' Union of Calcutta (1905), The Madras and Calcutta Postal Union (1907), and the Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha (1910) came into existence. All these unions aimed at promoting welfare facilities for workers and spreading literacy among them.

Answer : The 1937 election was the first in which large masses of Indians were eligible to participate.The results were in favour of the Indian National Congress and the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany on 3 September 1939.

• The Congress objected strongly to the declaration of war without prior consultation with Indians. The Congress Working Committee suggested that it would cooperate if there were a central Indian national government formed, and a commitment made to India's independence after the war.
• The Muslim League promised its support to the British, with Jinnah calling on Muslims to help the British by "honourable co-operation" at the "critical and difficult juncture," while asking the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.
• Linlithgow refused the demands of the Congress.
• On 22 October 1939, it "called upon all Congress ministries to tender their resignations."
• Both Viceroy Linlithgow and Muhammad Ali Jinnah were pleased with the resignations.
• On 2 December 1939, Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for Indian Muslims to celebrate 22 December 1939 as a "Day of Deliverance" from Congress.
• The two-nation theory appeared in 1938 and was clearly communicated by Jinnah in 1940.
• Once, the demand for Pakistan was made, it received direct and indirect encouragement from British authorities.
• The immediate cause of the emergence of the demand for Pakistan was the refusal of the Congress to form coalition ministries after the elections of 1937.
• The Muslim League opposed the Quit India Movement as it was of the view that if the British left India in its current state, the minorities would be oppressed at the hands of the Hindu majority.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah's opposition to the call led to large numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British, and enlisting in the army.
• This support of Muslim League to British and reason for the support formed the base of the statement of Winston Churchill that The Congress does not represent all and is not India's mouthpiece because ... there are large minorities in India that are bitterly opposed to its plan of cutting loose from the British empire.

Answer : As a result of partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem of princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled by a maharaja or a Nawab each of whom had to be persuaded to join the new nation.

Role of Sardar Patel: At independence, a vast majority of Indian lived in the village farmers and peasants depended on monsoon for their survival.In the cities, crowded slums were occupied by factory workers who had little access to education or health care. New nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by increasing the productivity of agriculture and by promoting new job-creating industries.

• A significant contribution of Indian national movement had been to forge India's unity cutting across class, caste, ethnic and religious divides. It was achieved as a struggle against colonialism. After 1947, when the British had left India there was a resurfacing of tensions inherent in the Indian society.
• The foremost was the challenge of religious communalism. The national movement's attempt at uniting Hindus and Muslims in face of the higher challenge of colonialism was undermined even when the major movements like Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements were withdrawn.
• In the post-colonial phase with the growing social and economic insecurity communalism reared its ugly head again. Partition stimulated a wave of communal unrest. The challenge was to address the problem of communal tension and its violent aftermath.
• These it may be pointed out were responses coming from within the civil society. At the constitutional level fundamental rights to equality and freedom. For minority institutions to run their own affairs sought to create an atmosphere in which amicable conditions came in to being for communal harmony. The Indian State tried to create a legal framework in which Hindus and Muslims could live together.
• Apart from the religious divide the problem of caste divides persist as a major challenge to the nascent Indian society and polity. B.R. Ambedkar took up the cause of the lower caste movements in the days of the freedom struggle. However, in spite of various achievements of Dr. Ambedkar, the Dalit and lower castes continued to be abused, humiliated and deprived of their basic rights in the post-independence India.
• Furthermore, there is a major challenge which the Indian nation faces in the North-East. Here tribes with territorial and kinship lies spreading over several states and even national boundaries are in a struggle for defining their self-determination. During the colonial regime, social and economic neglect of these tribes compounded the problem. Consequently, there has been tension threatening the unity and integrity of India itself.

Answer : Relations between India and Pakistan have been complex due to a number of historical and political events. Relations between the two states have been defined by the violent partition of British India in 1947, the Kashmir conflict and the numerous military conflicts fought between the two nations.

• Soon after their independence, India and Pakistan established diplomatic relations but the violent partition and numerous territorial claims would overshadow their relationship. Since their independence, the two countries have fought three major wars, one undeclared war and have been involved in numerous armed skirmishes and military standoffs.
• There have been numerous attempts to improve the relationship-notably, the Shimla summit, the Agra summit and the Lahore summit. Since the early 1980s, relations between the two nations soured particularly after the Siachen conflict, the intensification of Kashmir insurgency in 1989, Indian and Pakistani nuclear tests in 1998 and the 1999 Kargil war. Certain confidence-building measures - such as the 2003 ceasefire agreement and the Delhi-Lahore Bus service - were successful in deescalating tensions. However, these efforts have been impeded by periodic terrorist attacks like 2001 Indian Parliament attack, 2008 Mumbai attacks etc.
• Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended when United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.
• Due to miserable failure of the Third Plan and Indo-Pak war the government was forced to declare "plan holidays" (from 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69). Three annual plans were drawn during this intervening period. During 1966-67 there was again the problem of drought. Equal priority was given to agriculture, its allied activities, and industrial sector. The main reasons for plan holidays were the war, lack of resources, and increase in inflation.

Answer : There is no doubt about the fact that Indian National Congress played a major role in Indian national movement. But national movement was not constricted to Indian National Congress only. Many other forces made significant contributed in their own way to the National movement. One of the prominent of them was Azad Hind Fauz.

• In 1942, the Indian Independence League was formed and a decision was taken to form the Indian National Army (INA) for the liberation of India.
• He was made president of the Indian Independence League and the leader of the INA popularly called 'Azad Hind Fauj'.
• In March 1944, the Indian flag was hoisted at Kohima.
• Unfortunately, after that the movement collapsed after the defeat of Japan in WW II.
• The end of the war saw a large number of the troops repatriated to India where some faced trials for treason.
• These trials became a galvanising point of the Indian Independence movement.
• The Bombay mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy along with other mutinies in 1946 has been credited to the nationalistic influence from the fallout of the INA trials.
• Historians point out these events played a crucial role in hastening the end of British rule.
• After the war, the British observed with alarm the transformation of the perception of Azad Hind from traitors and collaborators to "the greatest among the patriots". Given the tide of militant nationalism that swept through India and the resentment and revolts it inspired, it is arguable that its overarching aim, to foster public resentment and revolts within the Indian forces of the British Indian Army to overthrow the Raj, was ultimately successful.
• However, the true extent to which the INA's activities influenced the decision to leave India is mirrored by the views of Clement Attlee, the British prime minister at the time of India's Independence.

Attlee cites several reasons, the most important of which were the INA activities of Subhas Chandra Bose, which weakened the very foundation of the British Empire in India, and the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny which made the British realise that the support of the Indian armed forces could no longer be relied upon.

Answer : Partition had led to mass movement of population living in the proximity of the newly created border in an environment of violence and brutality by groups on both sides, people got themselves established at new places after days of moving away from their friends, relatives, neighbours and lost their old relations while trying to form new ones.

• Women particularly were subjected to harrowing experience in those violent times. Women were raped, abducted, sold, many times over. They were forced to settle down with strangers in unknown circumstances.
• All this led to changing and complicated human relationships. These women began to adjust and some began to develop new family bonds in their changed circumstances. Believing the women to be on the wrong side of the border, they now tore them away from their new relatives, and sent them back to their earlier families or locations. They did not consult the concerned women, undermining their right to take decisions regarding their own lives.
• According to one estimate, 30,000 women were “recovered” overall, 22,000 Muslim women in India and 8000 Hindu and Sikh women in Pakistan, in an operation that ended as late as 1954.
• The women who developed new relations and escaped the horror of being abducted and sold were still subjected to the insensitivity of the systems, which would have definitely been prevented.
• The partition created lot of complexities in relationships on both sides but it is the human spirit of love and brotherhood which made people reestablish their lives and the women caught in the crossfire of partition could start a new life, of course with exceptions and a heavy price.

Answer : An ardent freedom fighter and a crusader of social reform, Jayaprakash Narayan was popularly known as 'Lok Nayak'. He was deeply influenced by Marxist philosophy. He worked for the cause of the workers and joined the communist cell. He advocated the abolition of Zamindari and called for nationalization of heavy industries. Comprehending his socialistic Zeal, Nehru urged him to join the Indian National Congress and offered him the charge of its Labour Department. He also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement.

• After Independence he joined Vinoba Bhave's Bhoodan Movement. In 1974, he once again joined active politics and took part in the agitation against the corrupt Bihar Government. 'Nav Nirman' movement became a symbol of defiance to authoritarianism in Independent India. With V. M. Tarkunde, he founded the Citizens for Democracy in 1974 and the People's Union for Civil Liberties in 1976, to uphold and defend civil liberties.
• In 1975, when Indira Gandhi was convicted of corrupt practices, Narayan called for her resignation and a massive movement of pacifist non-cooperation with the government. Indira Gandhi declared a national emergency, jailed Narayan and 600 other opposition leaders and imposed censorship of the press. It was called JP movement. After his release, he formed Janta party.
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in recognition of his social work. Other awards include the Magsaysay award for Public Service in 1965.

Answer : The task of integrating tribal people into the mainstream of Indian society was extremely complex. It was due to the fact that they lived in different parts of India, speaking different languages with distinct cultures.

• During the colonial period, a number of merchants, money-lenders, landlords, petty officials, etc. coming from the non-tribal community disrupted the life of tribal people by acquiring their land, disrupting their traditional way of life, exploiting them in their own business at a lower cost, etc.
• Thus the Independence of India laid a great emphasis on the preservation of the rich and distinct culture of the tribal people living in various parts of it.
• The need to provide adequate safeguard for the tribals was extensively discussed in the Constitutional Assembly, and the nationalist opinion favored incorporation of far more radical provisions for the safeguard of the tribals' interest in the form of the Vth schedule and VIth schedule of the Indian Constitution.
• Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's thought was of accommodating the uniqueness of tribal people into the mainstream of India. He proposed to inspire them with confidence and to make them feel at one with India, and to make them realize that they are part of India and have an honoured place in it.
• He never thought about the assimilation and liquidation of distinct tribal culture into India’s mainstream.
• This basic philosophy underlies the famous 'Panchasheel' or five principles enunciated by Nehru for the administration of tribal areas.

These five principles are:

1. People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should try to encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture.
2. Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected.
3. We should try to train and build up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and development. Some technical personnel from outside will, no doubt, be needed especially in the beginning. But we should avoid introducing too many outsiders into tribals.
4. We should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes. We should rather work through and not in rivalry to, their own social and cultural institutions.
5. We should judge results not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character that is evolved.

Jawaharlal Nehru's philosophy and vision shaped the tribal policy in the 1950s in India. He avoided the extreme of the two stand points, namely the anthropological approach which sought to treat the tribals as museum specimens to be kept apart, for study and observations and the other approach which sought to destroy their individuality, distort the process of their development and absorb them in the culture and way of life that was alien to them.

Answer : Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the pioneer of modern Indian Renaissance for the remarkable reforms he brought in the 18th century India. He was moved by deep love for his people and country and worked hard all his life for their social, religious, intellectual and political regeneration.

• Social Reforms: Possessed great love and respect for the traditional philosophical system of the East, but at the same time believed that modern culture alone would help regenerate the Indian society.
• In particular, he wanted his countryman to accept rational and scientific approach and principle of human dignity, social equality of all men and women. He condemned all the social evils prevalent in society - subjugation of women, polygamy, sati, superstition, etc. It was because of his efforts that sati was banned by Willian Bentick.
• Religious Reforms: He was opposed to the domination of corrupt priests and belief in many gods, rituals, etc. He published his famous work “Gift to Monotheists” in which he put forward various arguments against polytheism. He published Bengali translation of Vedas, Upanishads whose authority he held to preach monotheism and tried to incorporate moral messages of all religions into hinduism. Brahmo Samaj was founded by him to preach his ideas and vigorously defended the Hindu religion.
• Intellectual Reforms:Ram Mohan Roy wanted Indians to acquire all that was best in both East and West in the light of reason and science. He was the earliest propagators of modern education, founded the famous Hindu college with David Heze, English school in Calcutta, where Indian learning alongwith western social and physical sciences were offered. He made Bengali as vehicle of intellectual intercourse and compiled Bengali grammar. He is also considered as pioneer of Indian journalism where he brought out journals in Bengali, Persian, Hindi, English, etc.
• Political Reforms: Ram Mohan Roy was the initiator of public agitation on political question and condemned oppressive practice of Bengal Zamindars. He protested against attempts to impose taxes on tax free land, further demanded indianisation of superior service, separation of executive and judiciary, judicial equality between Indians and Europeans, etc.
• He was firm believer of internationalism and free cooperation between the nations, for which hesupported the cause of liberty, democracy & nationalism.

Answer : Imperialism is majorly seen associated with strict foreign control of men and resources of a nation or colony by the foreign few, but on the other side imperialism had some positive effects on the lives of colonized people. Some of which are as under:-

• Modern technology and education systems were inducted in the colonies. More advanced machines were brought in to industrialize the new colony. Education was much more popular after colonization because social groups were less dominant.
• Transportation methods and communication were introduced by the imperial powers.
• Some of the social evils and problems were removed from the colonies.
• The concept of urbanisation, municipal admin-istration, better sanitation and sewage disposal at least in the urban centres were seen associated.
• In continent like Africa, average life expectancy and literacy rates rose.
• Imperial control brought some amount of political control and stability for many of the African colonies.
• Imperialism as an after-effect led to the political and geographical consolidation of many regions which were otherwise distinctly ruled by different authorities.
• Introduced various administrative structures which are still seen existing in these colonies.
• The ideas which flowed in with the imperial presses brought sense of rational thinking and scientific analysis and led to major/minor social movements which in turn led to many positive changes.
• Developments of urban centres, cantonment towns, port infrastructure, industrial towns, etc.

The struggle for freedom from imperialism also led to consolidation of thesenation – states with new ideas and beliefs of nation building as well as formation of new governing mechanisms.

Answer : No less flawed is Marxism’s notion that human nature is infinitely malleable, and hence that a combination of coercion and education can produce beings purged of acquisitiveness and willing to dissolve in society at large, a society where, as envisioned by Plato, “the private and individual is altogether banished from life.”

• Even if the immense pressures exerted by Communist regimes to this end were to succeed, their success would at best be ephemeral: as animal trainers have discovered, after being subjected to intensive drilling to perform tricks, animals, freed from training, after a while forget what they have learned and revert to their instinctive behavior. Furthermore, given that acquired characteristics are not heritable, each new generation will bring into the world non-Communist attitudes, among which acquisiti-veness is certainly not the least powerful. “Comm-unism ultimately was defeated by its inability to refashion human nature”
• Such realities have forced Communist regimes to resort to violence as a routine means of governance. To compel people to give up what they own and to surrender their private interests to the state requires that public authority dispose of boundless authority. This is what Lenin meant when he defined the “dictatorship of the proletariat” as “power that is limited by nothing, by no laws, that is restrained by absolutely no rules, that rests directly on coercion.”
• From the day the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in 1917, dozens of attempts have been made across the globe to establish societies based on Communist principles. Moscow invariably supported these efforts by supplying them with massive amounts of money, weaponry, and tactical/political guidance. But virtually every Communist experiment – including Russia's – ultimately failed.
• “Marxism, the theoretical foundation of communism, carried within it the seeds of its own destruction.” One of those seeds is the fact that Marxism is founded on the false premise that human acquisitiveness – the desire to acquire and accumulate private property – is a transient historical phenomenon beyond which the human race, if properly educated and coerced, can evolve. Marxism seeks to lead mankind toward that end, in the belief that the abolition of property will, by logical extension, eliminate the economic inequalities that allegedly create class conflict.
• But the history of mankind is replete with evidence that acquisitiveness is inborn and has been part of human nature since the dawn of time. As rightly said, “Lenin is an artist who worked on humans as other artists work on marble or metal. But human beings are harder than granite and less malleable than iron. No masterwork has emerged. The artist has failed. The task has proven beyond his powers.”

Answer : Cooperative Society is an autonomous association united voluntarily to meet the members‘ common social, economic, and cultural aspirations and needs through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise to improve and uplift their living condition within the context of the universally accepted cooperative principles of membership, democratic admin-istration, equitable contribution, savings disposal, education and cooperative cooperation.

• The co-operative movement has played a significant role in the development of rural economy of India. Since independence the co-operative movement has recorded substantial progress. Now it covers about 95% of the villages and more than 60% of the rural population. It has supplied not only credit for agricultural production but other services too.
• Co-operative has played significant role in the field of rural credit. It has supplied cheap credit to cultivators and made them free from the clutches of the moneylenders. It has brought various advantages to cultivators, including supply of requisites and bringing better prices to produce through co-operative marketing and processing. They are helpful to secure common purchases of raw materials, equipment and tools. They also provide common marketing facilities and joint selling operations, which can prevent unhealthy cut-throat competition. They give training, advice, guidance, which tends to raise productivity. The co-operative societies had led to the use of better farming methods, such as the use of improved seeds, manures, etc. Co-operative movement increases the level of earnings of artisans by providing employment.
• Inability to ensure active membership, speedy exit of non-user members, lack of member communication and awareness building measures, serious inadequacies in governance including that related to Boards’ roles and responsibilities are major issues faced by the cooperatives.
• Recent constitutional amendment has introduced new Part IX B after Part IX A of the Constitution, along with Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) and Municipalities; it implies that cooperatives are a part of governance.

Answer : The British ruled our nation for almost two centuries and they made various legal and socio-cultural changes during their reign while to suit their colonial rule and to make this country into an entity which could be controlled by the empire.

• The major changes were mostly to suit their needs but some social changes and reform movements initiated by the scientific and rational understanding changed us for better. Similarly, the legal changes provided the convenience to the British to rule this huge nation but many of these provided a base for our way of administration after the British left.

Some of the cultural and social changes are as under:

1. British brought new ideas of liberty, equality, freedom and human rights from the Renaissance, these ideas appealed to some section of the society and led to major reform movements, at the forefront of whom were visionaries like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali, etc.
2. In the 19th century, certain social pra-ctices like female infanticide, sati, child marriage, polygamy and a rigid caste-system were present. These practices were against human dignities and values. The practice of Sati was abolished by Lord Bentick in 1829, widow remarriage was legalized by a law passed in 1856, laws passed in 1872 sanctioned inter caste and inter comm-unity marriages, Sharda Act was passed in 1929 to prevent child marriage, etc.
3. Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper caste, this system was slowly reformed (more to suit the British). More institutions were opened at all levels of education, various commissions were formed to reform the education service, and also women started getting better education opp-ortunity. They introduced English education to further their own motives but it has become our link language today.
4. The role of press and media slowly started increasing in our society and expression of thought brought political awakening and exchange of ideas.
5. Various institutes were set up for better understanding the Indian languages and literature to better rule the Indians like Madarsas, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Sanskrit College of Benarus, etc.
6. Events which were influenced by British actions like Poona Pact continue to provide for the basis of representation of backward sections.

Some of the legal changes which continue to affect us even now are:

1. The very basis of administrative structure and the way it evolved, e.g. Office of collector, revenue administr-ation, divisions, conduct rules, comp-etitive exam, public service commission, police administration, etc. got its base in the British era.
2. The various legislation which continue today, influence our administrative structure such as the police act, the sections of IPC and CRPC, legislation related to land use, etc.
3. The evolution of legislative organs at both the centre and the states, plus the concept of the Parliamentary democracy was partially due to our British legacy and the various Charters which gave concepts such as Bicameralism, division of powers, subject lists, portfolio system, etc.
4. The concept of local governance, specially the municipal administration, which traces down to Madras in 1681 or the local governance brought by Lord Ripon in the 1880s.
5. The concept of Federation which was concretised by the GoI Act, 1935 and the division of powers between the centre and the states.
6. The mechanism of integrated judiciary which now provides for an independent and strong leg on which democracy rests itself.

These were few of the many changes that took place as a result of British rule and continue to affect our lives even today.

Answer : The Industrial Revolution changed the basis of economies from agriculture to industry and commerce. Mechanization, and then standardization, lowered production costs tremendously, which made hand-made goods, and the artisans who made them, obsolete. Industry required the outlay of huge amounts of capital for plants, machinery, and raw materials. To recoup this investment, goods were produced and sold at a price above the cost to produce them, creating profits. Merchants then bought these goods, transported them to where they perceived demand to be, and sold them to the public at a higher price than they paid the manufacturer, creating profits. This led to Capitalism.

• Capitalism rests on the premise that effective competition is the best way of guiding individual efforts. Parties in a free market economy are free to buy and sell at any price at which they can find a partner to transact with; and anybody is free to produce, sell, or buy anything that may be produced or sold. The law is limited in a free market to the recognition of private property and freedom of contract. Socialism is against competition.
• Capitalism is a system in which the distribution of persons between different occupations stems from their own choices. It is therefore necessary that remuneration in these occupations should correspond to their usefulness to the other members of society.
• Capitalism removes barriers and whenever the barriers to the free exercise of human ingenuity were removed, man rapidly improved his lot, with the lives of no class of people not substantially advanced. By the 20th Century, an average working man in the Western world had physical comforts, security, and personal independence, which for previous millennia would scarcely have been dreamed possible. Unfettered Capitalism produced the incredible wealth one sees in the western world today.
• It cannot be assumed that it will continue to raise standards of living while under increased hostility and interference from the intelligentsia.

Answer : In 1975, India experienced its greatest political crisis since independence when Internal Emergency was declared on 25 June. By the beginning of 1973, Indira Gandhi's popularity began to decline. People's expectations were unfulfilled. Little dent being made in rural or urban poverty or economic inequality, nor was there any lessening of caste and class oppression in the country side.

• The immediate provocation for the rising discontent was the marked deterioration in the economic situation. A combination of recession, growing unemployment, rampant inflation and scarcity of foodstuffs created a serious crisis.
• Mrs. Gandhi proclaimed a state of Internal Emergency under Article 352 of the Constitution on the morning of 25 June, suspending the normal political processes, but promising to return to normalcy as soon as conditions warranted it. The proclamation suspended the federal provisions of the Constitution and fundamental rights and civil liberties. The government imposed strict censorship on the Press and stifled all protest and opposition to the government. Hundreds of the main leaders of the Opposition were arrested under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA). During the Emergency, the Parliament was made utterly ineffective. The opposition of a few brave MPs, who had not been arrested, was nullified as their speeches were not permitted to be reported in the Press. The state governments were rigidly controlled.A series of decrees, laws and constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the judiciary to check the functioning of the executive.
• The emergency gave immense power not only in Indira's hand but also her son, Sanjay Gandhi. He performed atrocity of sterlisation. Covered with a blanket of 'family planning', the process was supposed to be voluntary. But as it turned out, there were reports where unmarried, old and in some cases opponents were forced to get sterilized.
• The fourth estate of democracy, the media suffered immensely under Emergency. Severe censorship was imposed on newspaper, television and radio as well.

Answer : Gandhiji who had re-entered active politics in 1928 gave the call for a Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. The Civil Disobedience differed from the earlier Non-Cooperation Movement (1921-22) in that while the latter sought to bring the working of the Government, to a standstill by not cooperating with the administration, the former aim at paralysing the administration by performance of specific illegal acts.

• Gandhi marched from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast for the purpose of raiding the Government Salt. The violation of salt law was his first challenge to the government. It was a peaceful march. Gandhi committed a technical breach of the Salt Law on 6th April, 1930, when he picked up the scattered sea salt from the coast to break this Law. In this movement, farmers, traders and women took part in large numbers.
• After the failure of Second Round Table Conference, Gandhi resumed the movement in January 1932.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement lacked the organization that marked its first phase. It was suspended, when Mahatma Gandhi withdrew mass satyagraha on July 14th, 1933. The movement ceased completely by April 7th 1934.
• Although the CDM failed to achieve any positive outcome, it was an important juncture in the history of Indian independence. The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi had a beneficial impact. The warring factions within Congress united under the aegis of the CDM and gave it self-confidence, pride and determination. The Congress became a movement of the masses.
• It promoted unity among Indians of different regions under the Congress banner. It provided an opportunity to recruit younger people and educate them for positions of trust and responsibility in the organization as also in provincial administration, which was captured in the 1937 elections. It gave wide publicity to political ideas and methods throughout the country and generated political awareness even in remote villages.

Answer : Communalism was rooted in modern economic, political and social institutions where new identities were emerging in a haphazard manner even as the old, pre-modern identities had not diminished.

A clash of this fundamental dichotomy gave rise to a communal ideology.

• Socio-economic reasons: The professional classes and the bourgeoisie emerged later among the Muslims than among the Hindus. There was rivalry for jobs, trade and industry between the two communities. The Muslim bourgeoisie used the lower middle classes of the Muslims against the Hindu bourgeoisie to further their class interests.
• British policy of divide and rule: The Government used persons like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the growing influence of the Congress. Sir Syed Khan had a broadminded and reformist outlook initially but later he started supporting the colonial government, exhorting the Muslim masses to stay away from the Congress and not to get politicised. He also started talking of separate interests of Hindus and Muslims.
• Communalism in history writing: Initially suggested by imperialist historians and later adopted by some chauvinist Indian historians, the communal interpretation of Indian history portrayed the ancient phase as the Hindu phase and the medieval phase as the Muslim phase. The conflicts of ruling classes during the medieval phase were distorted and exaggerated as Hindu-Muslim conflicts.
• Side-effects of socio-religious reform movements: Reform movements such as Wahabi Movement among Muslims and Shuddhi among Hindus with their militant overtones made the role of religion more vulnerable to communalism. Reforms, at times, were seen as a process of insulating one community from the influence of another religious community.
• Side-effects of militant nationalism: With the coming of militant nationalism, a distinct Hindu nationalist tinge was palpable in the nationalist politics. For instance, Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals and anti-cow slaughter campaigns created much suspicion. Aurobindo’s vision of an Aryanised world, Swadeshi Movement with elements like dips in the Ganga and revolutionary terrorism with oath-taking before goddesses were hardly likely to enthuse Muslims into these campaigns in a big way.
• Communal reaction by majority community: Naturally, the minority communalism met with a reaction from the majority community which set up militant organisations like the Hindu Mahasabha (established in 1915) and Rashtriya SwayamsevakSangh (RSS—established in 1925). The resultant one-upmanship of different versions of communal tendencies was one factor which deterred any effective counter-offensive against communalism.

Answer : The impact of new thought in the west, a product of intellectual revolution in the 18th Century, French revolution and industrial revolution was felt in India which gradually shaped itselfinto social and cultural awakening in the early 19th century.

• The newly evolved western thought was guided by the doctrine of Rationalism, humanism and individualism. Thoughtful Indians of that time right from Raja Rammohan Ray to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar to Swami Vivekananda held that elements of modern western thought had to be imbibed with a local sentiment for regeneration of the Indian society.
• Reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy immensely stressed on the modern doctrines. He wanted his countrymen to accept the rational and scientific approach and believed in the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and women. He along with reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar opposed all the ills prevalent in the Indian society like Sati, Child marriage, rigidity of Caste, idol worship, condition of the widow, polygamy, etc. citing the authority of old sacred books.
• Reformers also stressed on modern scientific education. Various education institutions were opened offering learning on physical sciences, however they were not opposed to traditional vices. Reforms like Abolition of Sati, widow remarriage, raising the age of marriage, ban on infanticide, were the result of wave of rationalism and a scientific and humanitarian outlook.

Answer : Socialist ideas have significantly influenced the formulation of the means and objectives of Indian economic policies. This has happened in two distinct ways: via the impact of external, socialist ideologies on the economic and political notions held by Elite groups influencing policy-making in India; and via the political constraints imposed on the dominant Congress Party by the relative strength of the Left, and the relative weakness of the Right, parties in the spectrum of Indian politics.

• After India's independence in 1947, the Indian government under Nehru and Indira Gandhi oversaw land reform and the nationalization of major industries and the banking sector. Independently, activists Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan worked for peaceful land redistribution under the Sarvodaya movement, where landlords granted land to farm workers out of their own free will. In the 1960s, the Communist Party of India formed the first democratically-elected communist govern-ment in the world when it won elections in the states of Kerala and later in West Bengal.
• The government, through successive five-year plans, sought to increase the share of the public sector in total investment, expecting at the end of such a sustained effort to raise the government’s share of the capital stock to a dominant level. Similarly, on the problem of key sectors to include steel and heavy industry, the successive industrial policy resolutions of the government again focused on reservation of these areas to public sector investment rather than on the take-over of existing private sector concerns.
• The industrial and import licensing machinery was not merely directed at the regulation of the composition of industrial production and investment but was also considered necessary as an instrument for preventing the concentration of wealth and economic power within a limited number of large Industrial Houses in the private sectors.

Answer : Upto mid of 19th century Britishers had control over entire subcontinent, Burma and Aden. They also had developed very elaborate burocracy and for this they need large number of educated young men.

The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups on the issue of development of education in India. One group, called the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through Indian languages. The other group, called the Anglicists, argued the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English language.

The context for Macaulay's Minute was the claim of the British i.e. "to be employed as Government shall direct for the intellectual improvement of the people of the country". It was felt that this improvement could not be conducted in India's many native tongues, as these did not yet have the capacity to convey complex scientific terms and information. The available alternatives were the two classical languages, Arabic and Sanskrit, and modern English.

Other reasons for choosing English:

• To have English trained clerical staffs for the purpose of administration of vast Indian Territory.
• Importing employees from England would have made Indian Administration costly.
• Only an English speaking and western educated individual would have understood the objectives of an imperial rule.
• To make market for the British goods produced in British Factories.
• To make a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect to ascertain loyalty.
• To divide Indians among two groups– one that speaks English and has imperial taste and another common vernacular speaking people and thus paving the way for eternal colonial rule.
• Western and English education also transformed the taste local people in various ways. This was beneficial for British commerce and this system also help in psychological colonialism, establishing European cultral and intelectual hegemony, there propaganda “white man’s burden”, and also help in establishing the notion of British justice, liberal values etc.

Answer : In the midst of the World War II when a new situation developed with the partic-ipation of Japan in the War the British government was compelled to open negotiations with the Indian leaders. It was in this background that a Mission was sent under the leadership of Sir Richard Stafford Cripps' to India. This was known as the Cripps' Mission.

Relevant proposals of the mission:

1. The goal of India was to be the attainment of the Dominion Status.
2. The Indians were to be given the right to frame the Dominion Constitution after the War.
3. The constitution-making body would constitute elected members from the British territories as also the representatives from the Native States.
4. Any Province or State would have the right to reject the Constitution.Manifestations of the proposals: According to Cripps proposals, provinces could opt out of the Indian Union, which was definitely not acceptable to Congress Nationalists. They considered this option a lethal blow to Indian land. Cripps Mission conceded the right of self determination to provincial units, i.e. the provinces were free to remain within India or opt out of Indian Union. Mr. Jinnah was pleased with this clause because the provinces with Muslim majority could form their own federation i.e. Pakistan. Conclude with the failure of the mission and emphasize how later on Muslim League pressed their demand for a separate nation from taking clue from the proposals of Cripps mission.

• British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian art as old patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous.
• Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), referred to as the father of Modern Indian art introduced reworked Asian styles, in alignment with a developing Indian nationalism and pan- Asianism to create a new school of art, which is today known as the Bengal school of art.
• Other artists of the Tagore family, such as Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (1867–1938) as well as new artists of the early 20th c such as Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941) were responsible for introducing Avant Garde western styles into Indian Art.
• The British architectural style was known as the Indo-Saracenic. It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favoured in Victorian Britain. Structures built in Indo-Saracenic style in India were predominately grand public edifices, such as clock towers and courthouses.
• Salient features included: onion (bulbous) domes, overhanging eaves, pointed arches, cusped arches, or scalloped arches, vaulted roofs, towers or minarets, open pavilions or pavilions with Bangala roofs, pierced open arcading, etc. Apart from this, the trade policies of the British ruined the local artisans.

Answer : The Sargent Scheme, formally known as the Report of the Sargent Commission on Post-War Education Development in India, was a 1944 memorandum prepared at the behest of the British-run Government of India that outlined the future development of literacy and education in India. The report had maintained that in a period of not less than 40 years, the standard of Indian education will be made equivalent to that of England. It had made certain policy decisions, the implications of which may have far reaching consequences.

They may be outlined below:

• Pre-primary education for children between 3 to 6 years of age.
• Universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children between the ages 6— 11 (junior basic) and 11—14 (senior basic).
• High school education for six years for selected children between the years 11—17.
• Degree course for three years beginning after the higher secondary examination for selected students
• Technical, commercial, agricultural and art education for full time and part time students, girls schools to teach domestic science.
• The liquidation of adult illiteracy and the development of public library system in about 20 years.
• Full provision for the proper training of teachers.
• Educational provision be made for the physically and mentally handicapped children.
• The organisation of compulsory physical education.
• Provision be made for social and recreational activities.
• The creation of employment bureaus.
• The creation of department of Education in the centre and in the states
• The use of mother tongue to be used as the medium of instruction in all high schools.

Answer : The European Renaissance was characterised by the discovery and triumph of humanism and the re-emergence of man to the centre of history with sensitivity to his creative ability, reflected in his achievements in the past.

• The Renaissance paintings that celebrated the human body are a reflection of the rebirth of man. The emergence of man to the centre stage also meant emancipation from social bonds, particularly religious bonds, which provided the inspiration for the Reformation and the necessary intellectual freedom for Enlightenment.
• Indian renaissance during the 19th century in the context of an emerging middle class which mainly developed its social vision, political beliefs and cultural ethos from the history of Western societies, received through the medium of the ideological apparatuses of the colonial state.

Answer : The middle class comprises mainly of petty bourgeoisie and the white collar workers. In terms of occupation, shopkeepers, salesmen, brokers, government and non government office workers, supervisors and professionals such as engineers, doctors etc constitute the middle class.

• The middle class participated at various stages of India’s freedom movement. The major events of their collective action were the partition of Bengal in 1906,the non cooperation campaign in the early 1920s,the anti-Simon agitation in the mid 1920s, Civil Disobedience movements in the early 1930s and Quit India movement in 1942. There were a number of local- level campaigns organized and spontaneous against the British Raj.

Answer : India is a diverse country- topographically, ethnically, linguistically, etc. as well as economically. Diversity gives birth to a rainbow culture if united by a common constitution, development aspiration and administration. The ancient glory and culture of the country also unites this diverse nation.

But regional aspirations increase due to a plethora of reasons- development gap, aspiration for identity, lack of proportionate representation in national polity and economy, lack of cooperation between resource rich states and resource poor states and also spurt in divisive politics.

Some of the past examples of regional aspirations include Creation of Andhra Pradesh, Dravidian movement against imposition of Hindi.

Present Examples include Cessation movements and tribal groups and clashes in the North Eastern states, River water disputes, attack on workers from Bihar and other northern and eastern states in Maharashtra and other parts of India, growth of regional political parties, and demand for backward state status.

Solutions:

• There is rule of law and a national Constitution that does not differentiate between the people of India on the basis of region, caste, creed and religion, guided by the directive principles and gives fundamental rights to all citizens and freedom to go in any part of the country for livelihood.
• Centre provides development finance through Planning Commission and transfers resources through the Finance Commission to the States.
• Special programmes for backward states and backward regions.
• A mechanism to settle river water disputes.
• Setting up of PSUs in backward States.
• A countrywide PDS system to provide subsidized food grains.
• Creation of infrastructure and industria-lization.
• A political system that gives representation according to population and existence of two big national political parties.

Answer : It is a one sided view that the industrial revolution led to the exploitation of the poor working class by the rich capitalist class. No doubt this is true. But the industrial revolution led to many positive developments that improved the standard of living of ordinary people. It also lent dynamism in the social structure that gave fillip to factory production and urbanization. This eventually led to the growth of the middle class, which helped to remove many negative aspects of industrial revolution.

The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the words of Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., “For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.

The following positive effects of the industrial revolution need to be noted:

1. Development of science and technology.
2. Industrial development.
3. Increase in production and productivity.
4. Increase in employment and income.
5. Increase in supply of cheap consumer goods.
6. Progress in urbanization.

The first phase of industrial revolution was, however, marked by static wages, poor working and living conditions of workers, more gains for the capitalist class, demise of old landed aristocracy and birth of a new middle class, etc.

The later phases of industrial revolution saw lots of development in working and living conditions, education and health, nutrition and standard of living.

We can conclude that the industrial revolution was an evolving process of development. It led to some undesirable results in the beginning, but the system corrected itself as it progressed. The growth of middle class and socialist movement helped in this rectification. Also trade unions and democratic welfare states played a major role in evening out inequality. Therefore, the Industrial Revolution in the net effect marked progress.

Answer : Regions are characterized by the presence of unique similarity in some or many features such as topography, language, culture, shared history and culture, similar level of economic development. Regionalisation gives a good basis for planning for socio-economic development. But it has a tendency to go against the spirit of national integration, especially when regionalism is used as a pressure tactics to bargain better deals from the Centre.

In nation making different kinds of regions pose a problem. In the first place it is very difficult to satisfy aspirations of all the regions in equal manner, especially when different regions have different historical legacies in development and social progress. There are, say for example, geographically different regions with different natural resource base, some areas are topographically difficult, some are fertile, some have industrial base, others are culturally rich, yet others are marked by good infrastructure network or urbanisation etc. In such a case planning by central agencies according to the principle of one size fits all would not satisfy all the regions.

There are cultural differences, difference in language, lifestyle and festivities. All the regions have an urge for their specific identity. The regions and their people feel pride in their unique geography, history, culture and language. Sometimes the people also have a pride in their ethnic and anthropological specialty.

Regional identity and regional aspirations are a legitimate expression of democracy. However, overemphasis on regional identities generates centrifugal forces. Such longing needs to be rationalized when we imagine one nation with many shared dreams. The people of a pluralist culture like India need to reconcile their regional interest with national interest. Too many regional forums, too many regional political parties, too much emphasis on the uniqueness of regions and mobilization of people along regional lines may be disastrous for a plurilateral society like India. The integration of a country will get a setback if such kind of over-emphasis in regionalism led centrifugal forces were not balanced by centripetal forces.

For makers of a nation regional aspiration, self-pride and identity pose a problem. Economic development, rule of the law and constitution may bind different regions together, but at the same time making a space for regional aspirations would be necessary for the success of the federation of states. The national and regional interests can be synchronized and made complementary to each other. This may be facilitated by decentralized planning, autonomy to different units of the Indian federation and education and awareness among people of India regarding benefits of remaining united.

Answer : The British Crown’s suzerainty over 175 Princely States, generally the largest and most important, was exercised in the name of the British Crown by the central government of British India under the Viceroy. The remaining, approximately four hundred, states were influenced by Agents answerable to the provincial governments of British India under a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or Chief Commissioner.

• A clear distinction between “dominion” and “suzerainty” was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the legislation enacted by the British Parliament, and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.
• By a treaty, the British controlled the external affairs of the princely states absolutely. As the states were not British possessions, they retained control over their own internal affairs, subject to a degree of British influence which in many states was substantial.
• By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the British and the four largest states — Hyderabad, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Baroda — were directly under the control of the Governor-General of India, in the person of a British Resident.
• Two agencies, for Rajputana and Central India, oversaw twenty and 148 princely states respectively. The remaining princely states had their own British political officers, or Agents, who answered to the Administrators of India’s provinces. The Agents of five princely states were then under the authority of Madras, 354 under Bombay, 26 of Bengal, two under Assam, 34 under Punjab, 15 under Central Provinces and Berar and 2 under United Provinces.
• The Chamber of Princes (Narender Mandal or Narendra Mandal) was an institution established in 1920 by a Royal Proclamation of the King-Emperor to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the British Raj in 1947.
• By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose Agencies were under the authority of India’s provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the Governor general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies.
• There were officially 565 princely states in India at the time of independence in 1947, but the great majority had contracted with the Viceroy of India to provide public services and tax collection. Only 21 major ones had actual state governments, and among them only four were large (Hyderabad State, Mysore State, Baroda State and Jammu and Kashmir State).

Answer : Nation-building refers to the pro-cess of constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state. It is thus narrower than what Paul James calls "nation formation", the broad process through which nations come into being. Nation-building aims at the unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. According to Harris Mylonas, "Legiti-mate authority in modern national states is connected to popular rule, to majorities. Nation—building is the process through which these majorities are constructed."

At political level

• Integration of princeley states with India: The first and foremost step in realising the dream of a nation-state.
• The Constitution: The Constitution of India was the first attempt at nation building. It provides the foundation or the design of the government. Our national leaders believed that the Consti-tution of India would help to integrate the people into a united nation.
• Socialist Pattern: The adoption of socialist pattern of society in order to reduce inequalities in society constituted another attempt of the Indian polity toward nation-building.
• Reorganization of states in order to accom-modate regional aspiration: The political map of India, at independence, was far from complete. A lot of territorial adjustment and re-adjustment was to be done to right-size the state keeping in mind the country’s manifold diversity, and multiple identities.
• Suppressing Separatist tendencies: The various federal institutional measures allowing for the exercise of internal self- determination of collective identity whether linguistic, or tribal, in India since the 1950s, has served to contain much of secessionism, and political separatism, and thus to strengthen national unity, and cohesion.

At economic level

Formulation of Five-Year Plans for regulating the economic activity was one such step. The planning process is not merely an economic activity. It is also a political activity. The Planning Commission not only decides about which sector has to produce how much, it also allocates projects to various states in order to avoid regional imbalance.

• Similarly, the balance has to be maintained between the various interest groups, which have emerged around different sectors of the economy. Also balance to be created by focussing on industry and agriculture in different plans.
• Distributive justice: The Indian nation state not only concentrated on making available goods for distribution, but it also decided to follow the path of distributive justice i.e. achieving a fair and equal distribution of goods and services among all people.
• Economic Reforms: The latest strategy at the economic level is LPG. Those concerned with the task of nation-building have utilized many other strategies, like planned socio-economic develo-pment and expansion of education, health serv-ices, mass communication and expenditure on infrastructure and at times even reorganizing the existing states.

Answer : De-industrialization refers to the process of continued and marked industrial decline. The proportion of the national income generated by industry and the percentage of population dependent on it are commonly used as qua-ntitative measures of industrial growth or decline. An increase in these proportions suggests industrialization while a decrease indicates industrial decline or de-industrialization.

• During the colonial era, wherever there was dominance of European power (Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Britain, etc.), whether it be in Asia, Africa or in Latin America, the inperialistic strategy was to extract the raw materials from their colonies and send to their home country to be used in the industries.
• This caused de-industrialization in the slave countries. In the pre-1813 period it was the excessive exploitation of the Indian industrial sector especially the textile industry by the monopolistic East lndia Company which led to the progressive degeneration of this industry.
• Forcible reduction of purchase prices in India was resorted to by the East lndia Company to increase the difference between its buying and selling price and consequently increase its trading profits. High import duties on Indian goods in England was to make sure that minimum Indian goods reach the British markets.
• The import restrictions on Indian textiles in England further weakened the industry. Restricting any possibility of capital accumulation and technological innovations in traditional industrial sector.
• Another strategy adopted by the British was extremely low import duties on British goods in India to dump cheaper goods in Indian market and paralysing the native industries. Export of raw materials from India to Britain also ensured that there was not much for the local industries.
• India's traditional manufacturing sector was being steadily weakend under the Company, in the same Period Britain had begun its Industrial Revolution and was rapidly expanding its industries by revolutionizing its technology as well as organization along principles of capitalist production. The growing British textile industry had all the advantage which was dented to its Indian counterpart.
• The British industry had a rapidly developing technological base, it had the advantages of economies of scale and finally it was carefully protected in its formative years from foreign competition.

• Three main agencies were responsible for the spread of modern education in India: the foreign Christian missionaries, the British government and progressive Indians.
• The British Government was, however, the principal agent in disseminating modern education in India. It established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out educated Indians well-versed in modern knowledge - To reduce the expenditure on administration; To encourage the study of English language; To expand market for English goods and to spread Christianity.
• According to Lord Macaulay after receiving modern education Indians would remain Indians only in their colour while their interests, ideas, morals and Intelligence will be of British taste. But by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism. Students boycotted schools, colleges and took part in different national movements such as Swadeshi Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India movement.

Answer : The Civil Disobedience Movement led by Gandhiji, in the year 1930 was an important milestone in the history of Indian Nationalism.Bardoli and Kheda in Gujarat, Bankura and Arambagh in Bengal, Bhipur and Bhagalpur in Bihar emerged as strong centres of political activities during the movement.

• The salt was the initial catalyst, but the other activities, which kept the momentum of the movement were, picketing of the liquor shops and excise license auctions in small towns as well as villages. The refusal to pay Chowkidari tax was another form of protest during the movement, even at the cost of massive coercion and in some cases sale of property.
• The Congress tried to channelise the peasants and tribal grievances regarding forest laws in areas such as Central Province, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Training camps for ‘forest Satyagrahis’ were started in several areas, where Congressmen trained them. The activities that were carried out were the boycott of Forest Department auctions, peaceful mass violation of grazing and timber restrictions and public sale/auction of illegally acquired forest produce.
• In Bihar, the movement witnessed considerable participation in the rural areas where small landlords and small tenants took an active part in the movement.

Answer : The main arguments that convinced the Indian leaders, the British regime and the Princely states to agree to the proposals of accession to India includes:

• Future progress of the country depended on an integrated country.
• Politically a Constitution could only be made if the country was united.
• Administrative set up in a free India could work efficiently only if India remained integrated.
• Economic interaction between Britain and India was only possible when India remained an integrated entity.
• The Princely states required the support of the central government for progress and security.

Answer : The demand for smaller states in India or for that matter in any developing country springs from regional aspirations, development gaps or regional inequality, administrative efficiency or for satisfying identity related aspirations such as language and culture.

• India followed a policy of making linguistic states after a movement to create the state of Andhra Pradesh in the early fifties on the basis of linguistic identity. Earlier the state of Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa had been reorganized on the basis of their linguistic differences. But while reorganizing the state of Maharashtra, Madhya Paradesh and Uttar Pradesh, along with language, geographical proximity and admi-nistrative convenience was also considered.
• In 2000 three new states, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh were created due to increasing public demand for these states to mitigate development gaps which were not met while they remained parts of UP, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh respectively. Such kind of demand is still being made in case of Bundelkhand, Telangana, Vida-rbha, Poorvanchal, Harit Pradesh, etc. to mitigate development gaps.
• The results of the creation of these new states have not decidedly improved the development of these states. Their political developments are also marked by local differences and bickerings.
• Today it is important to analyse whether making smaller states entails more costs than the benefits it brings. Will it not be fueling regional aspiration and serving the interest of local vested interest rather than people’s interest? In so far as smaller states fulfill democratic aspirations, accelerate growth and development and increase administrative efficiency, creation of such states is good. However, political expediency as a reason for the creation of smaller states would weaken the federation. Buckling under the pressure of local vested interest would also harm national integration.

Answer : Pakistan celebrated its indep-endence on 14 August and India on 15 August 1947, the border between the two new states was not announced until 17 August. It was drawn up by a British lawyer, Cyril Radcliffe, who had little knowledge of Indian conditions and with the use of out-of-date maps and census materials. Communities, families and farms were cut in two, but by delaying the announcement the British managed to avoid responsibility for the worst fighting and the mass migration that had followed.

• The Partition of India ranks, beyond doubt, as one of the 10 greatest tragedies in human history. For the Punjab alone, the loss of life is estimated somewhere between 500,000-800,000 and 10 million people were forced to flee for their lives.
• Fear of an uncertain future, lack of comm-unication between the leaders of the estranged communities, the waning authority of the British and the consequent unreliability of the state institutions and functionaries created the social and political milieu in which suspicion and fear proliferated, generating angst among the common people. In such situations reaction and overreaction led to intended and unintended consequences which aggravated and finally resulted in the biggest human tragedy in the history of the Indian subcontinent.
• In January 1948, the government of India, following a fast by Gandhiji, paid Pakistan Rs. 550 million as part of the assets of Partition, even when it feared that the money might be used to finance military action in Kashmir. The governments of the two countries differed on issues raised by evacuee property, left behind by those who migrated from the two countries, but every effort was made to resolve them through renegotiations.
• As a result of Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be found homes and jobs. Then there was the problem of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be persuaded to join the new nation. The problems of the refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately. In the longer term, the new nation had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and expectations of its population.
• The government had to stretch itself to the maximum to give relief and resettle and rehabilitate the nearly six million refugees from Pakistan who had lost their all there and whose world had been turned upside down. The task took some time but it was accomplished. By 1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees from West Pakistan was fully tackled.
• The task of rehabilitating and resettling refugees from East Bengal was made more difficult by the fact that the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal continued for years. Unlike in Bengal, most of the refugees from West Punjab could occupy the large lands and property left by the Muslim migrants to Pakistan from Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan and could therefore be resettled on land.
• This was not the case in West Bengal. In addition, because of linguistic affinity, it was easier for Punjabi and Sindhi refugees to settle in today’s Himachal Pradesh and Haryana and western U.P., Rajasthan and Delhi. The resettlement of the refugees from East Bengal could take place only in Bengal and to a lesser extent in Assam and Tripura. As a result, a very large number of people who had been engaged in agricultural occupations before their displacement were forced to seek survival in semi-urban and urban contexts as the underclass.

Answer : A powerful left-wing group developed in India in the late 1920s and 1930s contributing to the radicalization of the national movement. The left wing within the Congress came to be symbolized by Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.

• The left wing in the Congress owed its emergence to the developments in the twenties. The twenties saw a new group emerging in Indian national movement. This young group laid enough exposure to the outside world and with the ideological developments there.
• Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose were the forces of this new group. Their exposure to international socialistic developments gave them new direction. The emergence of modern industries and factory system gave impetus to socialistic ideas in the Congress. It led to the growth of trade unions and they came under socialistic principles
• The Left group made a basic impact on Indian society, economy and politics. The Congress including its right wing accepted that the poverty and misery of the Indian people was the result of not only colonial domination but also of the internal socioeconomic structure of Indian society.
• The impact of the left was reflected in Fundamental Rights and Economic policy passed by Karachi session of the Congress in 1931, the resolution on Economic policy in 1931, the election manifesto in 1936, the setting up of national planning committee in 1938 and increasing shift of Gandhiji towards radical positions on econ-omic and class issues.
• The foundation of All India Student Federation and the Progressive Writer’s Association and the convening of the first All India State’s people conference in 1936 were some of its other footprints. The Left was also very active in the All India Women’s Conference.
• Moreover, Nehru and Bose were elected Congress presidents from 1936 to 1939 and Nehru was able to nominate three prominent socialists to the Congress working committee. In 1939, Bose as a candidate of the Left was able to defeat Pattabhi Sittaramayya in the Presidential elections. But there is other side of the coin too.
• The Left invariably fought the Congress leadership on wrong issues and when it came to the crunch was either forced to trail behind that leadership or was isolated from the national movement. Unlike the Congress right wing the Left failed to show ideological and tactical flexibility and sought to oppose the right wing with simplistic formulae and radical rhetoric. It chose to fight not on questions of ideology but on methods of struggle and tactics.
• A major weakness of the Left was the failure of different Left parties and individuals to work united except for the short periods. The Left also counterpoised armed struggle to non-violence as a superior form and method of struggle rather than concentrating on the nature of mass movement and ideology. Above all, the Left failed to understand or grasp Gandhian strategy of struggle.

Answer : 1974 ushered in a year of high inflation, unemployment and lack of supplies and essential commodities. Nav Nirman Andolan movement of Gujarat asked Jayaprakash to lead a peaceful agitation. On In 1974, he led the students' movement in the state of Bihar which gradually developed into a popular people's movement known as the Bihar Movement. It was during this movement that JP gave a call for peaceful Total Revolution. Together with V.M. Tarkunde, he found the Citizens for Democracy in 1974 and the People's Union for Civil Liberties in 1976, both NGOs, to uphold and defend civil liberties.

• Indira Gandhi was found guilty of violating electoral laws by the Allahabad High Court. Narayan called for Indira and the CMs to resign and the military and police to disregard unconstitutional and immoral orders. He advocated a program of social transformation which he termed Sampoorna kraanti, "total revolution". Immediately afterwards, Gandhi proclaimed a national Emergency on the midnight of 25 June 1975. Narayan, opposition leaders, and dissenting members of her own party (the 'Young Turks') were arrested.
• Jayaprakash Narayan attracted a gathering of 100,000 people at the Ramlila grounds and thunderously recited Rashtrakavi Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar''s wonderfully evocative poetry: Singhasan Khaali Karo Ke Janata Aaati Hai.
• Narayan was kept as detention at Chandigarh even after he asked for one month parole to mobilise relief in flooded parts of Bihar. In the UK, Surur Hoda launched the "Free JP" campaign chaired by Nobel Peace Prize winner Noel-Baker for the release of Jayaprakash Narayan.
• Indira Gandhi revoked the emergency on 18 January 1977 and announced elections. The Janata Party, a vehicle for the broad spectrum of the opposition to Indira Gandhi, was formed under JP's guidance. The Janata Party was voted into power and became the first non-Congress party to form a government at the Centre. On the call of Narayan, many youngsters joined the JP movement.

Answer : After the failure of the Cripps Mission a popular sentiment for a determined assault upon British imperialism ran extremely high. The hopes of understanding and co-operation between the British and Congress disappeared. Gandhi now began to inaugurate his systematic campaign for "orderly British withdrawal" from India. The campaign started late in April, 1942.

• In his views, "whatever the consequences, therefore, to India her real safety and Britain's too lie in an orderly and timely withdrawal from India". The phrase 'Quit India' in a spirit of 'Do or Die' came into vogue. The Summer of 1942 found Gandhi in a strange and unique militant mood in the reflection of which he wrote in the Harijan on 10th May, 1942 - "The presence of the British in India is an invitation to Japan to invade India. Their withdrawal removes that bait". A fortnight later he again wrote, "Leave India in God's hands or in modern parlance to anarchy. Then all parties will fight one another like dogs or will, when real responsibility faces them, come to a reasonable agreement." He repeatedly urged the British "This orderly disciplined anarchy should go and if as a result there is complete lawlessness I would risk it".
• The famous 'Quit India' resolution was passed by Bombay Session of the All India Congress Committee on the 8th of August 1942 followed by a call for 'mass struggle on nonviolent lines on the widest possible scale.'

Answer : An ongoing separatist struggle has continued in the region since the late 1940s, making it the longest running separatist struggle in South Asia. There are multiple parties involved in the struggles including different ethnic groups and states, some of whom want total independence from India while others call for a restructuring of the states.

• The Northeast states have accused New Delhi of ignoring the issues concerning them. A feeling of second-class citizenship meted out to them by mainland Indians has led the natives of these states to seek greater self-governance. There are also existing territorial disputes within the Northeastern states, including bet-ween Manipur and Nagaland, Nagaland and Assam, Meghalaya and Assam, and Mizoram and Assam. These are often based on historical border disputes and differing ethnic, tribal or cultural affinities. There has been a number of insurgent activities and regional movements in all parts of the northeast, often unique in character to each state. Military action by the armed and paramilitary forces and political action have led to the intensity of these insurgencies fluctuating and to the resolution of the insurgency in Mizoram.
• India’s ‘look east policy’ which was formulated in 1991 on the heels of India’s economic liberalization, was a foreign economic policy initiative towards South East Asia. The Northeast which is geographically situated between mainland India and Southeast Asia is supposed to have had immense developmental benefits as a result of this initiative and hence, have synergy effects on reducing poverty in the region; as well as on insurgency and armed conflict. The region’s diverse natural resources, rich bio-diversity and enormous hydro-electricity potential, among others, could also help to overcome the widespread feeling of backwardness among the inhabitants of the Northeast. But there is also increasing argument made that the impact of increased introduction of market imperatives in the traditional society of the region would have irreversible impact on the people’s culture and life and it would also lead to increased settlement of mainland people to the northeast. Thereby it is of high importance, that the announced opening will take place in a regulated frame and through cooperation with the local people, otherwise it could aggravate the tensions between the center and the region.
• The government has also faced criticism in the way in which it has been looking at the Northeast as an issue of territorial security rather than development per say. The fear of a growing Chinese influence, as well as, increasing cross-border terrorism (Myanmar, Bangladesh) in the region are some of the factors cited as reasons for limiting India in its attempt to open the region.

Answer : Agrarian movements in conte-mporary India may be broadly classified into two main categories. The first type of movements is those of the poor, the marginal or small peasants. These movements voice the demands related to their economic condition, for example, demand of the agricultural labourers for higher wages and better working condition. The second type of movements is of the more prosperous peasants, those who produce a considerable surplus within the rural economy. These movements are often in social science literature referred to as ‘Farmers’ Movement’ or ‘New Agrarianism’ or ‘New Pea-sant Movements’.

• In the initial years the sporadic movements were directed against the extraction of the Zamindars and other forms of intermediaries. These movements were and are around the grievances of the rural poor and in the pre independence years they developed in close connection with the national movement.
• The second category of movement has arisen in recent years in the Green revolution areas such as in western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab or south- western Maharashtra or in the far south such as Karnataka or Tamil Nadu and it is the rich and the middle peasants, the prosperous within the rural economy that organise and lead it. These movements have become much more prominent in recent years. The movements target the state, the bureaucratic apparatus and demand among other things concessions from the state like, rise in the remunerative prices for crops, decrease in the prices of agricultural inputs, providing electricity at a cheap rate etc. By focusing on the decline in the terms of trade over the years they also have created and highlighted a distinction between the ‘town’ and the ‘country’ and some of the leaders (for example, Sharad Joshi of the Shetkari Sangathana) emphasises that ‘Bharat’ is being exploited by ‘India’.

Answer : Imperialism is majorly seen associated with strict foreign control of men and resources of a nation or colony by the foreign few, but on the other side imperialism had some positive effects on the lives of colonized people. Some of which are as under:-

• Modern technology and education systems were inducted in the colonies. More advanced machines were brought in to industrialize the new colony. Education was much more popular after colonization because social groups were less dominant.
• Transportation methods and communication were introduced by the imperial powers.
• Some of the social evils and problems were removed from the colonies.
• The concept of urbanisation, municipal admin-istration, better sanitation and sewage disposal at least in the urban centres were seen associated.
• In continent like Africa, average life expectancy and literacy rates rose.
• Imperial control brought some amount of political control and stability for many of the African colonies.
• Imperialism as an after-effect led to the political and geographical consolidation of many regions which were otherwise distinctly ruled by different authorities.
• Introduced various administrative structures which are still seen existing in these colonies.
• The ideas which flowed in with the imperial presses brought sense of rational thinking and scientific analysis and led to major/minor social movements which in turn led to many positive changes.
• Developments of urban centres, cantonment towns, port infrastructure, industrial towns, etc.

The struggle for freedom from imperialism also led to consolidation of thesenation – states with new ideas and beliefs of nation building as well as formation of new governing mechanisms.

Answer : The Great Mutiny of 1857 was not something that originated on the spur of the moment because of some minor grievances but was the result of the accumulated discontent of different strata of society in India over a long period of passive suffering and a passionate derive to drive away the Britishers from India. English rule had impoverished all sections of the people, the intellectuals, the peasants, the craftsmen and the industrial structure and the small landowners. Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse had caused widespread resentment among the Indian Princes.

• Social reforms like the abolition of sati and legalization of widow remarriage originated suspect in the eyes of the people who thought that the English were tampering with their religion. The behaviour of the Christian missionaries who went about on a proselytizing spree, confirmed their suspicions.
• There was quite at lot of disaffection among the Sepoys in the army regarding the issues of salary, Foreign Service allowance, ill-treatment by English officers and greased cartridges (which was the immediate cause).
• The Mutiny started at Meerut on 10 May, 1857 by sepoys in the Company's army and soon assumed much bigger dimensions in which the people in northern and central India participated in thousands. It triggered uprising of the common men in many areas as a consequence of above mentioned religious and social factors.
• Delhi became the backbone of the mutineers and Kanpur was an important base of the Mutiny. The entire Bengal army revolted. Awadh, Rohilkhand, the Doab, the Bundelkhand, Central India, large parts ofBiharand east Punjab came under the sweep of the revolt. At many places the English were forced to retreat. The Great Mutiny of 1857 shook English rule in India to its very foundations.
• The Mutiny administrated as terrific jolt to the complacency of the English in India and led to a thorough reorganization of the internal administration of the country and the relationship with the Indian states. Power was taken away from the East India Company and transferred to the British Crown in 1858.
• Corruption was rampant in all departments of administration and it was the ordinary people who suffered the most. The educated found opportunities for employment steadily shrinking and joined the ever increasing ranks of malc-ontents.

Answer : James Hickey, who was considered a highly eccentric Irishman, founded the country's first major newspaper called Hickey's Bengal Gazette in the year 1780. He is credited as the man who laid the foundation of press in the country. He faced the might of the British Empire in India to espouse the cause of free expression and reining in the government by the voice of the people.

The newspaper (Bengal Gazette) became very famous and further inspired the Indians to write/publish newspaper of their own.

Buckingham was an Anglo – Indian who is titled as the “father of true Indian journalism”. He come to India as an editor of the ‘Calcutta Chronicle’ which was started by merchants of Calcutta to safeguard their viable interest but Buckingham laid more emphasis and meant his content for uplifting the issues of common public, news of local conditions, etc.He was more concerned about the social reforms and that is the reason he was more liked by the public.

Buckingham was a pioneer among Europeans who fought for liberal press in India. He was also coordinated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy as he became a pioneer of not only free speech and expression but a social reformer as well.

The press was a powerful factor in building and developing Indian Nationalism and national movement -social, cultural, political and economic.

The National movement, on its political side, was possible because of the facility of political education and propaganda provided by the press. It was an effective tool in the hands of the nationalist groups, to popularize among the people their receptive political programmes, policies and methods of struggle and to form organizations with a broad popular basis.

The press was an effective weapon in the hands of social reform groups to expose the social evils such as caste fetters, child marriage, ban on remarriage of widows, social, legal as well as other inequalities.

Specifically talking of the freedom struggle, the following points highlight the role of press:

1. Tilak Kesari, a marathi newspaper become one of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom movement. It also made the anti partition movement of Bengal a national issue.
2. During his stay in South Africa Gandhiji had brought out “Indian Opinion” and after settling in India he started the publication of “Young India, "Harijan", etc.
3. There were number of Congress presidents who were editors like Feroze Shah Mehta who had started the "Bombay Chronicle" and Pandit Madan Mohan Maliviya who edited the daily, "Hindustan", etc.
4. Subhash Chandra Bose and C.R Das were not journalists but they acquired the papers like "Forward" and "Advance" which latter attained natio-nal status. J.L. Nehru founded the "Nati-onal Herald".
5. In case of revolutionary movement, it did not begin with guns and bombs but it started with publication of newspapers, eg. "Yugantar" by B.K. Ghosh.
6. In 1905, S.K. Verma started publication of a journal "Indian Sociologist" from London. It used to publish reports of political activities taking place at the India House in London.
7. The Home Rule Movement also based itself on newspaper like "New India", "Commonweal" by Annie besant and 'Kesari', 'Marathi' by B.G. Tilak.

Thus press played a vibrant and dynamic role in giving us our freedom that we have today.

Answer : In the early 1970s the new farmers' movements or farmers' agitations as they have often been called have become some of the most important non-parliamentary political forces in various states of India.

From one state to other, farmers have formed organizations to struggle for better economic conditions in an increasingly commoditized agricultural economy.

The main target was the state and its intervention in the agrarian economy, supplying many of the inputs and regulating the markets. Farmers demanded lower prices on inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, lower tariffs on electricity and water, lower taxes, and debt relief.

Likewise they demanded higher prices for their products of grains, cash-crops, vegetables, milk and so on. 'Farming is not remunerative after the coming of the Green Revolution' was their message, and they claimed that the calculations of the Agricultural Price Commission (APC) have not reflected the real costs involved. They also hold that terms of trade between industry and agriculture is increasingly developing in favour of industry and against the agriculture.

Answer : India's efforts to pursue an independent foreign policy were very significant of post-1947 politics. A product of its long history and recent past, this policy was marked by a great deal of consistency and continuity. Despite revolutionary changes in the international situation, the broad parameters which were evolved during the freedom struggle and in the early years of independence still retain their validity. Jawaharlal Nehru stands as the architect of this.

It was Nehru who gave his voice a shape in the form of the idea of non-alignment and an organizational cohesion through the non-aligned movement. The immediate context for emergence of this movement was the division of the world into two hostile blocs after World War II. On the contrary, India and other similarly placed countries needed peace and quiet to get on with the business of development. Their interests lay in expanding the 'area of peace', not of war, or hostility. India, therefore, neither joined nor approved of the Baghdad Pact, the Manila Treaty, SEATO, and CENTO which joined the countries of West and East Asia to the western power bloc.

A basic objective of Indian foreign policy, that of extending support to colonial and ex-colonial countries in their struggle against colonialism, was well served by the policy of non-alignment. Another objective is promoting world peace, was also facilitated by it.

Inspired by Gandhi, and supported by great intellectuals like Einstein and Bertrand Russell, Nehru made it India's role to place the goal of peace, nuclear and general disarmament before the world. A major function of Indian foreign policy was to promote and protect Indian economic interests and to facilitate her on the path that she had chosen for herself. India also maintained an active profile in multilateral bodies and sought continuously to use her presence there to her advantage. Soon after independence, Nehru decided to stay within the Commonwealth for this very reason.

Answer : Tradition of moderates: the Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. The moderates believed in the method of constitutional agitation. Their aim was to attain political rights and self government stage by stage.

• Gandhiji was the successor to both the Moderates and the Extremists and use the techniques of both in more practical and dynamic ways.
• Gandhiji assumed Gokhle, a moderate stalwart as his political guru while adopted the techniques of Tilak’s mass based politics in wider form at national scale. He adopted the goals of moderates with the means of extremists. He adopted the moderate’s goals of self rule through non violent techniques, like protest and agitation, belief in the constitutional process, etc.
• But Gandhiji didn’t like their mendicancy and educated elite based politics. He firmly belief in the power of common mass and successfully tapped the vast reservoir of popular support. He adopted the technique of passive resistance in his own way, which he called as ‘satyagrah’.
• Gandhiencouraged the ideals of Gurudev and Swami Vivekanand in form of ‘Self-Reliance’ and empowerment of common mass, encouraged education in vernacular language, local customs and traditions, use of religion in politics, in his own ways. He encourage only moral aspect of religion and avoided orthodoxies and rituals used by the extremists. He also had tried to provide common platform for the people of different religion,faith,caste and creed, which the extremist could not.
• He adopted the extremists ideas of using swadesi products and constructive works on wider scale. He emphasized more on rural constructive works and tried to provide a common platform for all the sections, class, groups, and ideologies on national for the very first time.

Answer : Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa had formed a single province of British India since 1765. By 1900 the province had grown too large to handle under a single administration. The Hindus were in a better position in terms of economic status, professional qualities etc, than the Muslims. With the spread of Western education Hindus started adapting to the change environment, but the Muslims could not. Lord Curzon tried to encash this deprivation by sowing the seeds of partition among Hindu and Muslims. The partition has been used as an attempt to strangle nationalism in Bengal, where it was more developed than elsewhere.

• Official version was that Bengal being very large province, was very difficult to administer. It is true to some extent. It comprised of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, area of 189,000 sq mile and popul-ation of 80 million, divided into 60 million Bengali and 20 million non Bengalis. But the pattern of partition shows Curzon’s hidden policy of dividing Bengal on the communal lines.
• Bengal was the heart of nationalist movement. Dividing Bengal means dividing nationalist movement on communal lines. It could be divided into Bengali and non Bengali population, but they divided it on communal lines with clear intention of weakening national struggle for freedom.
• The result was soon manifested in Swadeshi Movement where muslim participation was quite low and later in the formation of Muslim League. This was the first step in the partition of the country that finally happened in 1947.]

Answer : The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to England for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian resources revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India but for its utilization in Britain.

According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of drain can be identified: Home charges, Remittances to England by Europeans to their families, Remittances for purchase of British Goods for consumption of British Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in India and Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

Impact of drain theory on nationalism:

1. There was huge growth in agricultural debt due to presence of Mahalwari, Ryotwari, Permanent Settlement Systems for Land revenue collection.
2. Decline of village handicrafts and slow growth of modern industries affected the agriculture sector of economy.
3. Deindustrialization occurred, Indian industries failed to compete with imported goods.
4. Colonial rule brought a major change in the taxation environment from revenue taxes to property taxes resulting in mass impoverishment and destitution of the great majority of farmers. All these led to widespread poverty and hunger thus generated economic nationalism. The theme was utilized by the nationalists to make aware the masses of the British injustice and hence in promoting nationalism.

Answer : Nehru believed that a newly decolonized nation must invest all its economic and logistic resources towards development and not defense and armament. Just like his economic policies, which were non-committal towards any ideological position, Nehru wanted to bring in a healthy level of pragmatism in his dealings of India's foreign affairs as well.

• His foreign policies were characterized by two major ideological aspects.
• First, he wanted India to have an identity that would be independent of any form of overt commitment to either power bloc, the USA or the Soviet. Secondly, he had an unshaken faith in goodwill and honesty in matters of international affairs.
• The first policy led ultimately to the founding of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM). And second led to Panchsheel or five-point agreement.

Answer : Three main agencies were responsible for the spread of modern education in India: the foreign Christian missionaries, the British government and progressive Indians.

• The British Government was, however, the principal agent in disseminating modern education in India. It established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out educated Indians well-versed in modern knowledge - To reduce the expenditure on administration; To encourage the study of English language; To expand market for English goods and to spread Christianity.
• According to Lord Macaulay after receiving modern education Indians would remain Indians only in their colour while their interests, ideas, morals and Intelligence will be of British taste. But by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism. Students boycotted schools, colleges and took part in different national movements such as Swadeshi Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India movement.

Answer : The Civil Disobedience Movement led by Gandhiji, in the year 1930 was an important milestone in the history of Indian Nationalism.Bardoli and Kheda in Gujarat, Bankura and Arambagh in Bengal, Bhipur and Bhagalpur in Bihar emerged as strong centres of political activities during the movement.

• The salt was the initial catalyst, but the other activities, which kept the momentum of the movement were, picketing of the liquor shops and excise license auctions in small towns as well as villages. The refusal to pay Chowkidari tax was another form of protest during the movement, even at the cost of massive coercion and in some cases sale of property.
• The Congress tried to channelise the peasants and tribal grievances regarding forest laws in areas such as Central Province, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Training camps for ‘forest Satyagrahis’ were started in several areas, where Congressmen trained them. The activities that were carried out were the boycott of Forest Department auctions, peaceful mass violation of grazing and timber restrictions and public sale/auction of illegally acquired forest produce.
• In Bihar, the movement witnessed consid-erable participation in the rural areas where small landlords and small tenants took an active part in the movement.

Answer : The main arguments that convinced the Indian leaders, the British regime and the Princely states to agree to the proposals of accession to India includes:

• Future progress of the country depended on an integrated country.
• Politically a Constitution could only be made if the country was united.
• Administrative set up in a free India could work efficiently only if India remained integrated.
• Economic interaction between Britain and India was only possible when India remained an integrated entity.
• The Princely states required the support of the central government for progress and security.

Answer : The demand for smaller states in India or for that matter in any developing country springs from regional aspirations, development gaps or regional inequality, administrative efficiency or for satisfying identity related aspirations such as language and culture.

• India followed a policy of making linguistic states after a movement to create the state of Andhra Pradesh in the early fifties on the basis of linguistic identity. Earlier the state of Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa had been reorganized on the basis of their linguistic differences. But while reorganizing the state of Maharashtra, Madhya Paradesh and Uttar Pradesh, along with language, geographical proximity and admi-nistrative convenience was also considered.
• In 2000 three new states, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh were created due to increasing public demand for these states to mitigate development gaps which were not met while they remained parts of UP, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh respectively. Such kind of demand is still being made in case of Bundelkhand, Telangana, Vida-rbha, Poorvanchal, Harit Pradesh, etc. to mitigate development gaps.
• The results of the creation of these new states have not decidedly improved the development of these states. Their political developments are also marked by local differences and bickerings.
• Today it is important to analyse whether making smaller states entails more costs than the benefits it brings. Will it not be fueling regional aspiration and serving the interest of local vested interest rather than people’s interest? In so far as smaller states fulfill democratic aspirations, accelerate growth and development and increase administrative efficiency, creation of such states is good. However, political expediency as a reason for the creation of smaller states would weaken the federation. Buckling under the pressure of local vested interest would also harm national integration.

Answer : In August 1914, soon after the outbreak of war when the British Expeditionary Force had been almost wiped out, Britain called on the Indian Army to fill the vital gap left in its defences. The first 28,500 Indian Army troops arrived on the Western Front on 26 September. They played a crucial role in holding the line and are said to have arrived just ‘in the nick of time’. Indian soldiers were deployed widely and fought in the battles of Ypres, Neuve Chapelle, the Somme and Passchendaele and in even greater number in Mesopotamia.

• The British, as a possession of Great Britain, formed part of the Allied Nations and sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theater.
• Indians fought with distinction throughout the world; in the European theaters of Germany and Italy, in the North African deserts against Rommel, in the West African campaign, and in the Asian region defending India against the Japanese, and liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong when the Japanese surrendered in August 1945.
• The Muslim League supported the British war effort while the largest and most influential political party existing in India at the time, the Indian National Congress, demanded independence before it would help Britain. London refused, and when Congress announced a "Quit India" campaign in August 1942, its leaders were imprisoned by the British for the duration. Meanwhile, under the leadership of Indian leader Subhas Chandra Bose and several other Indian revolutionaries who were seeking independence from the British, Japan set up an army of Indian POWs known as the Indian National Army.
• Apart from this, Indian participation in the Allied campaign remained strong. The financial, industrial and military assistance of India formed a crucial component of the British campaign against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. India's strategic location at the tip of the Indian Ocean, its massive production of armaments, and its huge armed forces played a decisive role in halting the progress of Imperial Japan in the South-East Asian theatre. The Indian Army during World War II was one of the largest Allied forces contingents which took part in the North and East African Campaign, Western Desert Campaign and the Italian Campaign. At the height of the World War, more than 2.5 million Indian troops were fighting Axis forces around the globe. After the end of the World War, India emerged as the world's fourth largest industrial power and its increased political, economic and military influence paved the way for its independence from the United Kingdom in 1947.

Answer : It has been several years since the Cold War ended and again reviving. Brought about every now and then about the fact that there is hardly any requirement for the Non-Aligned Movement in contemporary politics.

• In current scenario the USA remains a major super-power and China is in the process of becoming the biggest threat to US supremacy on world affairs. Russia is also slowly climbing back, for its joint policy of respecting anti-US policy in the Security Council, by the use of the veto along with China in diametric opposition to what the US proposes, Syria being an example.
• The changes in the Middle East is reiterating the fact that as democracy takes root, the US-propped-dictatorships are slowly becoming redundant, thereby reducing US power and influence over the region in comparison with what they originally had.Thus the NAM has become more important than ever before.
• The NAM has in recent years often criticised the USA while backing the self determination of Puerto Rico and Western Sahara. Since most of its members are developing nations it serves as a great platform for these nations to have their voice felt at the United Nations. It can play a strong role in devising methods to foster cooperation among these nations to ensure sustainable development and will lead to great progress in the fields of science, technology, culture and economics.
• The NAM can also act as a guide and overseer of the condition of Human Rights in some of the member states who have rather poor human rights records like Syria, Egypt or even India. NAM could even possibly standardize the yardstick by which Human Rights are treated and governed. NAM most importantly is a great way to ensure that issues like Palestine and crises in Somalia and Sudan get a fair and long-lasting solution and that the super-powers don't unduly interfere in these issues to meet their vested interest.
• Thus the NAM exists and will continue to exist as a strong organisation to reckon with. Among other reasons for NAM's continued relevance is the fact that India and South Africa- two Nations with the potential to become super powers are members. Also, economic powe-rhouses in the form of Singapore and Thailand are members. The strong membership from Africa, Asia and South America will be a great way for Nations with similar issues to sort them out and collectively make legitimate demands in global politics.It will in fact have stronger reasons and stronger means to take part actively in matters related to global politics and diplomacy now than in the Cold War era.

Answer : De-industrialization refers to the process of continued and marked industrial decline. The proportion of the national income generated by industry and the percentage of population dependent on it are commonly used as qua-ntitative measures of industrial growth or decline. An increase in these proportions suggests industrialization while a decrease indicates industrial decline or de-industrialization.

• During the colonial era, wherever there was dominance of European power (Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Britain, etc.), whether it be in Asia, Africa or in Latin America, the inperialistic strategy was to extract the raw materials from their colonies and send to their home country to be used in the industries.
• This caused de-industrialization in the slave countries. In the pre-1813 period it was the excessive exploitation of the Indian industrial sector especially the textile industry by the monopolistic East lndia Company which led to the progressive degeneration of this industry.
• Forcible reduction of purchase prices in India was resorted to by the East lndia Company to increase the difference between its buying and selling price and consequently increase its trading profits. High import duties on Indian goods in England were to make sure that minimum Indian goods reach the British markets.
• The import restrictions on Indian textiles in England further weakened the industry restricting any possibility of capital accumulation and technological innovations in traditional industrial sector.
• Another strategy adopted by the British was extremely low import duties on British goods in India to dump cheaper goods in Indian market and paralysing the native industries. Export of raw materials from India to Britain also ensured that there was not much for the local industries.
• India's traditional manufacturing sector was being steadily weakend under the Company, in the same Period Britain had begun its Industrial Revolution and was rapidly expanding its industries by revolutionizing its technology as well as organization along principles of capitalist production. The growing British textile industry had all the advantage which was dented to its Indian counterpart.
• The British industry had a rapidly developing technological base, it had the advantages of economies of scale and finally it was carefully protected in its formative years from foreign competition.